X-ray spectroscopy is generally accepted as the most useful ancillary technique that can be added to any scanning electron microscope (SEM), even to the point of being considered a necessity by most operators. While “stand-alone” x-ray detection systems are used less frequently in failure analysis than the more exact instrumentation employed in SEMs, the technology is advancing and is worthy of note due to its capability for nondestructive analysis and application in the field. This article begins with information on the basis of the x-ray signal. This is followed by information on the operating principles and applications of detectors for x-ray spectroscopy, namely energy-dispersive spectrometers, wavelength-dispersive spectrometers, and handheld x-ray fluorescence systems. The processes involved in x-ray analysis in the SEM and handheld x-ray fluorescence analysis are then covered. The article ends with a discussion on the applications of x-ray spectroscopy in failure analysis.

This article provides a detailed account of X-ray spectroscopy used for elemental identification and determination. It begins with an overview of the operating principles of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer, as well as a comparison of the operating principles of wavelength-dispersive spectrometer (WDS) and energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS). This is followed by a discussion on the mechanism and effects of X-ray radiation, X-ray emission, and X-ray absorption. The article then discusses components used, operation, and applications of WDS and EDS. Some of the factors and processes involved in sample preparation for XRF analysis are also included. The article further provides information on the practical procedure for and the applications of WDS and EDS qualitative and quantitative analyses.

This article provides a detailed account of the principles, instrumentation,and applications of x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), a technique used for elemental and compositional analysis of surfaces and thin films. It reviews the nomenclature of energy states and sensitivity of electrons at the surface that are capable of producing peaks in XPS. Additionally, it presents information on the instrumentation and the preparation and mounting of samples for XPS analysis. The article explains qualitative analysis, namely, measuring of shifts in the binding energy of core electrons, multiplet splitting, and the Auger parameter; and quantitative analysis such as depth analysis carried out using XPS. It also discusses the applications of XPS with examples.

This article focuses on the principles and applications of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) for the analysis of elemental and chemical composition. The discussion covers the nomenclature, instruments, and specimen preparation process of XPS. Some of the factors pertinent to the calibration of materials for accurate measurements using XPS are provided, along with some aspects of the accuracy in quantitative analysis by XPS. In addition, the article presents examples of how XPS data can be used to solve problems with surface interactions.