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Springs (elastic)
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Image
Published: 15 May 2022
Fig. 1 Spring and dashpot models. (a) Linear elastic material with constant modulus slope, E. (b) Dashpot with linear liquid viscosity slope, η. Reprinted under the Creative Commons CC BY license from Ref 1
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003268
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... specifies a bend test to determine the modulus of elasticity in bending. Japanese Industrial Standard JIS 3130 specifies two tests to determine the elastic limit of spring plate or strip: the repeated deflection spring test and the moment type spring test. bend testing ductility strength specimen...
Abstract
Bend tests are conducted to determine the ductility or strength of a material. This article discusses the different bend tests with emphasis on test methods, apparatuses, procedures, specimen preparation, and interpretation and reporting of results. The types of bend tests discussed are bending ductility tests, bending strength tests (ASTM E 855), bend tests as per EN 12384 and JIS 3130, and computer-aided bending tests. The three standard bending strength tests are the cantilever beam bend test, the three-point bend test, and the four-point bend test. European Standard EN 12384 specifies a bend test to determine the modulus of elasticity in bending. Japanese Industrial Standard JIS 3130 specifies two tests to determine the elastic limit of spring plate or strip: the repeated deflection spring test and the moment type spring test.
Image
Published: 01 November 1995
Fig. 5 Maxwell element in tension, where E is spring modulus, η e is dashpot viscosity, and σ is stress. The spring is an elastic element obeying Hooke's law, σ = E ε, while the dashpot load-bearing behavior is strain-rate ( ε ˙ ) dependent such that σ = η e ε ˙ .
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 20
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1997
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v20.a0002453
EISBN: 978-1-62708-194-8
... of the component for which a material is sought. A beam carries bending moments; a heat-exchanger tube transmits heat; a spring stores elastic energy. Step 2: Write down an Equation for the <italic>Objective;</italic> Step 2: Write down an equation for the objective; it is called the “objective function...
Abstract
This article defines performance indices in a formal way and specifies how they are derived. The performance indices for a light, strong tie and a light, stiff beam are presented. The article presents two case studies that illustrate the use of material indices, shape factors, and selection charts to select materials.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 8
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2000
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v08.a0003290
EISBN: 978-1-62708-176-4
... to a given displacement Determining the remaining spring load by transferring the load periodically from the deflecting member to a load measuring device Using the elastic springback on unloading to calculate the spring force remaining immediately prior to unloading using the spring constant...
Abstract
This article discusses stress relaxation testing on metallic materials, as covered by ASTM E 328. It reviews the two types of stress relaxation tests performed in tension, long-term and accelerated testing. The article illustrates load characteristics and data representation for stress relaxation testing used for the most convenient and common uniaxial tensile test. It concludes with information on compression testing, bend testing, torsion testing, and tests on springs.
Image
Published: 01 January 2000
of the material. Point A represents the elastic limit of the spring steel; point B represents that of the structural steel.
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Image
Published: 01 January 1997
Fig. 7 Springs have many shapes, but all perform the same basic function: that of storing elastic energy.
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Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003573
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
.... The article summarizes the general process of distortion failure analysis. It also discusses three types of distortion failures that provide useful insights into the problems of analyzing unusual mechanisms of distortion. These include elastic distortion, ratcheting, and inelastic cyclic buckling...
Abstract
Distortion failure occurs when a structure or component is deformed so that it can no longer support the load it was intended to carry. Every structure has a load limit beyond which it is considered unsafe or unreliable. Estimation of load limits is an important aspect of design and is commonly computed by classical design or limit analysis. This article discusses the common aspects of failure by distortion with suitable examples. Analysis of a distortion failure often must be thorough and rigorous to determine the root cause of failure and to specify proper corrective action. The article summarizes the general process of distortion failure analysis. It also discusses three types of distortion failures that provide useful insights into the problems of analyzing unusual mechanisms of distortion. These include elastic distortion, ratcheting, and inelastic cyclic buckling.
Image
Published: 01 January 2000
Fig. 15 Load-deflection plot for 0.76 mm (0.030 in.) thick spring-tempered C51000 phosphor-bronze strip. Data obtained by three-point bend testing for determination of modulus of elasticity in bending. Source: Bell Laboratories
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006797
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... can be plastic or elastic and may or may not be accompanied by fracture. There are two main types of distortion: size distortion, which refers to a change in volume (growth or shrinkage), and shape distortion (bending or warping), which refers to a change in geometric form. Most of the examples...
Abstract
Distortion often is observed in the analysis of other types of failures, and consideration of the distortion can be an important part of the analysis. This article first considers that true distortion occurs when it was unexpected and in which the distortion is associated with a functional failure. Then, a more general consideration of distortion in failure analysis is introduced. Several common aspects of failure by distortion are discussed and suitable examples of distortion failures are presented for illustration. The article provides information on methods to compute load limits, errors in the specification of the material, and faulty process and their corrective measures to meet specifications. It discusses the general process of material failure analysis and special types of distortion and deformation failure.
Image
Published: 15 May 2022
Fig. 3 Illustration of viscoelastic behavior. Both viscous and elastic natures are observed. (a) Spring and dashpot in (a) series, Maxwell model and (b) parallel, Kelvin-Voigt model. Note that for viscoelastic materials, force depends on both deformation and rate of deformation and vice-versa.
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Image
Published: 15 May 2022
Fig. 2 Illustration of deformation behavior. (a) Spring. (b) Rotational solid torsion bar. (c) Tensile solid specimen. Flow, Deformation, Solid behavior, Elastic nature: F = F(x); F ≠ F(v) ; F -force; x , Displacement; v, velocity; θ, torque; Θ, angular displacement
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Image
in Effects of Composition, Processing, and Structure on Properties of Engineering Plastics
> Materials Selection and Design
Published: 01 January 1997
Fig. 20 Mechanical models and typical behavior. (a) Ideal Hookean solid (σ = E ε ˙ ; spring model; elastic response). (b) Ideal viscous Newtonian liquid (σ = η ε ˙ ; dashpot model). (c) Maxwell's mechanical model for a viscoelastic material. (d) Voigt's mechanical model
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Image
in Effects of Composition, Processing, and Structure on Properties of Engineering Plastics
> Characterization and Failure Analysis of Plastics
Published: 15 May 2022
Fig. 17 Mechanical models and typical behavior. (a) Ideal Hookean solid (σ = E ε; spring model; elastic response). (b) Ideal viscous Newtonian liquid (σ = η ε ̇ ; dashpot model). (c) Maxwell’s mechanical model for a viscoelastic material. (d) Voigt’s mechanical model for a viscoelastic
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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2013
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v04a.a0005782
EISBN: 978-1-62708-165-8
... not be stress relieved, while expanded rings should be. This consideration applies equally to torsion springs. It is common practice to give these springs a low-temperature heat treatment to provide dimensional stability. Stress relieving affects the tensile strength and elastic limit, particularly...
Abstract
Stress-relief heat treating of steel is the uniform heating of a structure to a suitable temperature below the transformation range, holding at this temperature for a predetermined period of time, followed by uniform cooling. This article provides information on the sources of residual stress, briefly describes the factors influencing the relief of residual stresses, and discusses the various thermal stress-relief methods. It contains tables that provide a summary of compressive and tensile residual stresses at the surface of parts fabricated by common manufacturing processes. The article presents the temperature range of alloy steels for stress-relief heat treating and describes the importance of stress relief of springs.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1990
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v01.a0001019
EISBN: 978-1-62708-161-0
... to torsion springs. It is common practice to give these springs a low-temperature heat treatment to provide dimensional stability. Stress Relieving Stress relieving affects the tensile strength and elastic limit, particularly for springs made from music wire and hard-drawn spring wire. The properties...
Abstract
Steel springs are made in many types, shapes, and sizes, ranging from delicate hairsprings for instrument meters to massive buffer springs for railroad equipment. The primary focus of this article is small steel springs that are cold wound from wire. Wire springs are of four types: compression springs (including die springs), extension springs, torsion springs, and wire forms. Chemical composition, mechanical properties, surface quality, availability, and cost are the principal factors to be considered in selecting steel for springs. Both carbon and alloy steels are used extensively. The three types of wire used in the greatest number of applications of cold formed springs are hard-drawn spring wire, oil tempered wire and music wire. Residual stresses can increase or decrease the strength of a spring material, depending on their direction. Steel springs are often electroplated with zinc or cadmium to protect them from corrosion and abrasion. Although some hot-wound springs are made of steels that are also used for cold-wound springs, hot-wound springs are usually much larger, which results in significant metallurgical differences. All spring design is based on Hooke’s law; charts and formulas are available to aid in the design of springs.
Book: Fatigue and Fracture
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 19
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 1996
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v19.a0002377
EISBN: 978-1-62708-193-1
... factors that have a direct bearing on spring performance, and the circumstances in which fatigue could occur. Fatigue failure can occur after as few as 4000 cycles when a spring is subject to very high bending stresses close to the elastic limit of the material, but usually 10,000 to 50,000 cycles...
Abstract
This article discusses the failure mechanism of springs. It describes the critical application factors that affect spring fatigue performance. These include: material type and strength; stress conditions; surface quality; manufacturing processes; rate of application of load; and embrittlement or cracking. The article summarizes the methods of statistical analysis of S-N data for general comparisons of fatigue strength of spring steels. The fatigue performance of springs is illustrated by Goodman diagrams. The article also exemplifies the examination of failed springs.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 November 1995
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.emde.a0003024
EISBN: 978-1-62708-200-6
... in the compressive mode. Fig. 5 Maxwell element in tension, where E is spring modulus, η e is dashpot viscosity, and σ is stress. The spring is an elastic element obeying Hooke's law, σ = E ε, while the dashpot load-bearing behavior is strain-rate ( ε ˙ ) dependent such that σ = η e ε...
Abstract
This article discusses the deformation and viscoelastic characteristics of plastics as polymeric materials, focusing on the test methods used for the evaluation of their mechanical properties, methods available for analytically predicting the deformation response of polymers, and the effect of viscoelasticity on the test methods used. Two common ways of evaluating viscoelasticity of plastics are by means of creep experiments and dynamic mechanical experiments. Graphic or tabular analysis of test data, time-temperature superposition, and empirical correlation methods are commonly employed for analytical prediction of deformation characteristics of polymers.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006941
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... component of response to both stress and strain. Therefore, when modeling viscoelasticity and particularly when limiting that response analysis in one dimension, one can define the purely elastic component to be a spring, and the viscous liquid component to be a dashpot. Figure 1 depicts...
Abstract
This article describes the viscoelastic behavior of plastics in their solid state only, from the standpoint of the material deforming without fracturing. The consequences of viscoelasticity on the mechanical properties of plastics are described, especially in terms of time-dependencies, as well as the dependence of the viscoelastic character of a plastic on chemical, physical, and compositional variables. By examining the viscoelastic behavior of plastics, the information obtained are then applied in situations in which it may be important to anticipate the long-term properties of a material. This includes assessing the extent of stress decay in materials that are pre-stressed, the noise and vibration transmission characteristics of a material, the amount of heat build-up in a material subjected to cyclic deformation, and the extent a material can recover from any prior deformation. Several qualitative graphs are presented, which highlights the possible differences in the viscoelastic behavior that can exist among plastics.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Desk Editions
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1998
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.mhde2.a0003136
EISBN: 978-1-62708-199-3
... of the transformation of elastic strain in the material to plastic, or permanent strain. copper copper alloys stress-relaxation structural applications thermal softening COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS are used extensively in structural applications in which they are subject to moderately elevated temperatures...
Abstract
Copper and copper alloys are used extensively in structural applications in which they are subject to moderately elevated temperatures. At relatively low operating temperatures, these alloys can undergo thermal softening or stress relaxation, which can lead to service failures. This article is a collection of curves and tables that present data on thermal softening and stress-relaxation in copper and copper alloys. Thermal softening occurs over extended periods at temperatures lower than those inducing recrystallization in commercial heat treatments. Stress relaxation occurs because of the transformation of elastic strain in the material to plastic, or permanent strain.
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