Hardness conversions are empirical relationships that are defined by conversion tables limited to specific categories of materials. This article tabulates examples of the published hardness conversion equations for various materials including steels, cement carbides, and white cast irons. It informs that when making hardness correlations, it is best to consult ASTM E 140. The article tabulates the approximate Rockwell B hardness and Rockwell C hardness conversion numbers for nonaustenitic steels according to ASTM E 140. It also tabulates the approximate equivalent hardness numbers for Brinell hardness numbers and Vickers (diamond pyramid) hardness numbers for steel.

Hardness conversions are empirical relationships that are defined by conversion tables limited to specific categories of materials. This article summarizes hardness conversion formulas for various materials in a table. It tabulates the approximate Rockwell B and Rockwell C hardness conversion numbers for nonaustenitic steels. The article lists the approximate equivalent hardness numbers for Brinell hardness numbers and Vickers hardness numbers for steel in tables. The tables are also outlined in a graphical form.

This article describes the principal methods for macroindentation hardness testing by the Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell methods. For each method, the test types and indenters, scale limitations, testing machines, calibration, indenter selection and geometry, load selection and impression size, testing methodology, and testing of specific materials are also discussed.

Hardness conversions are empirical relationships that are defined by conversion tables limited to specific categories of materials. This article is a comprehensive collection of tables that list hardness conversion formulas. Approximate Rockwell B and C hardness conversion numbers for nonaustenitic steels, and approximate equivalent hardness numbers for Brinell and Vickers (diamond pyramid) hardness numbers for steels are provided.

Hardness conversions are empirical relationships defined by conversion tables limited to specific categories of materials. This article is a collection of tables that present approximate Rockwell B hardness conversion numbers for nonaustenitic steels as per ASTM E 140 and approximate equivalent hardness numbers for the Brinell hardness and the Vickers (diamond pyramid) hardness numbers for steel.

Hardness testing is perhaps the simplest and the least expensive method of mechanically characterizing a material. This article provides an overview of the principles of hardness testing. It compares Brinell with Meyer hardness testing and hardness testing of fully cold worked metals with fully annealed metals. The article discusses the plastic deformation of ideal plastic metals under an indenter, by a flat punch, and by spherical indenters. The classification of the hardness tests using various criteria, including type of measurement, magnitude of indentation load, and nature of the test, is also provided.

This article reviews the factors that have a significant effect on the selection and interpretation of results of different hardness tests, namely, Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers, and Knoop tests. The factors concerned include hardness level (and scale limitations), specimen thickness, size and shape of the workpiece, specimen surface flatness and surface condition, and indent location. The article focuses on the selection for specific types of materials, such as steels, cast irons, nonferrous alloys, and plastics, and industrial applications, of hardness tests.

Mechanical testing is an evaluative tool used by the failure analyst to collect data regarding the macro- and micromechanical properties of the materials being examined. This article provides information on a few important considerations regarding mechanical testing that the failure analyst must keep in mind. These considerations include the test location and orientation, the use of raw material certifications, the certifications potentially not representing the hardware, and the determination of valid test results. The article introduces the concepts of various mechanical testing techniques and discusses the advantages and limitations of each technique when used in failure analysis. The focus is on various types of static load testing, hardness testing, and impact testing. The testing types covered include uniaxial tension testing, uniaxial compression testing, bend testing, hardness testing, macroindentation hardness, microindentation hardness, and the impact toughness test.

This article presents a comprehensive collection of tables that list Rockwell hardness and superficial hardness numbers for wrought aluminum products, wrought coppers, and cartridge brass.

This article is a comprehensive collection of tables that list the approximate equivalent hardness numbers for wrought aluminum products, wrought coppers, and cartridge brass.

Miscellaneous hardness tests encompass a number of test methods that have been developed for specific applications. These include dynamic, or "rebound," hardness tests using a Leeb tester or a Scleroscope; static indentation tests on rubber or plastic products using the durometer or IRHD testers; scratch hardness tests; and ultrasonic microindentation testing. This article reviews the procedures, equipment, and applications associated with these alternate hardness test methods.

A newly developed theory on plasticity makes it possible to include elastic effects, which play a major role when using blunt hardness indenters. This article reviews the new theory and explains several phenomena associated with practical hardness testing. In the indentation hardness test, a blunt indenter that approximates a flat punch is forced into a plane surface. The effective cone angle for most indenters is such that some upward flow results even when there is sufficient material surrounding the indenter to provide a full elastic constraint. When loaded by a blunt indenter, materials with high values of Young's Modulus of Elasticity/uniaxial flow stress (E/Y) (metals) appear to develop a Hertzian stress distribution over the contact. In contrast, materials with low values of E/Y (glasses and polymers) develop a uniform distribution of stress.

Rolling-element bearings use rolling elements interposed between two raceways, and relative motion is permitted by the rotation of these elements. This article presents an overview of bearing materials, bearing-load ratings, and an examination of failed bearings. Rolling-element bearings are designed on the principle of rolling contact rather than sliding contact; frictional effects, although low, are not negligible, and lubrication is essential. The article lists the typical characteristics and causes of several types of failures. It describes failure by wear, failure by fretting, failure by corrosion, failure by plastic flow, failure by rolling-contact fatigue, and failure by damage. The article discusses the effects of fabrication practices, heat treatment and hardness of bearing components, and lubrication of rolling-element bearings with a few examples.

This article reviews the various types of mechanical testing methods, including hardness testing; tension testing; compression testing; dynamic fracture testing; fracture toughness testing; fatigue life testing; fatigue crack growth testing; and creep, stress-rupture, and stress-relaxation testing. Shear testing, torsion testing, and formability testing are also discussed. The discussion of tension testing includes information about stress-strain curves and the properties described by them.

This article reviews the general characteristics of fretting wear in mechanical components with an emphasis on steel. It focuses on the effects of physical variables and the environment on fretting wear. The variables include the amplitude of slip, normal load, frequency of vibration, type of contact and vibration, impact fretting, surface finish, and residual stresses. The form, composition, and role of the debris are briefly discussed. The article also describes the measurement, mechanism, and prevention of fretting wear. It concludes with several examples of failures related to fretting wear.

Alloys 333.0 and A333.0 are age-hardenable permanent mold casting alloys recommended for high-temperature applications requiring pressure tightness. This datasheet provides information on key alloy metallurgy, processing effects on physical and mechanical properties, fabrication characteristics, and application characteristics of these 3xxx series alloys.

An understanding of the influence of microstructure on machinability can provide an insight into more efficient machining and the correct solution to problems. Providing numerous microstructures to depict examples, this article describes the relationship between the microstructure and machinability of cast irons, steels, and aluminum alloys. It presents data on hardness values and the effect of the matrix microstructure of cast iron on tool life. It also explains how a higher inclusion count improves the machinability of steels and why aluminum alloys can be machined at very high speeds.

This article provides a discussion on the equipment used and specimen preparation for microindentation hardness testing (MHT) such as the Vickers hardness test and the Knoop hardness test. It describes the important test considerations to be considered during MHT. The article also discusses the most common hardness conversions and the applications of MHT.