This article provides a detailed account of X-ray spectroscopy used for elemental identification and determination. It begins with an overview of the operating principles of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer, as well as a comparison of the operating principles of wavelength-dispersive spectrometer (WDS) and energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS). This is followed by a discussion on the mechanism and effects of X-ray radiation, X-ray emission, and X-ray absorption. The article then discusses components used, operation, and applications of WDS and EDS. Some of the factors and processes involved in sample preparation for XRF analysis are also included. The article further provides information on the practical procedure for and the applications of WDS and EDS qualitative and quantitative analyses.

This article provides a detailed account of particle-induced x-ray emission (PIXE), covering the basic principles of PIXE analysis and calibration and quality-assurance protocols employed. A comparative study on PIXE and x-ray fluorescence is then presented. The article also discusses the applications of PIXE in atmospheric physics and chemistry, external proton milliprobes and historical analysis, and PIXE microprobes.

This article provides an introduction to x-ray spectrometry, and discusses the role of electromagnetic radiation, x-ray emission, and x-ray absorption. It focuses on the instrumentation of wavelength-dispersive x-ray spectrometers, and energy dispersive x-ray spectrometers (EDS) that comprise x-ray tubes, the analyzing system, and detectors. The fundamentals of EDS operation are described. The article also provides useful information on preparation of various samples, explaining the qualitative and quantitative analyses of EDS. It reviews the applications of the x-ray spectrometry.

Particle-induced x-ray emission (PIXE) is one of several quantitative analyses based on characteristic x-rays. This article provides a detailed account on the principles of PIXE, discussing the data-reduction codes used to identify, integrate, and reduce x-ray peaks into elemental concentrations. It provides information on the calibration of PIXE analysis, which is mostly performed using gravimetric standards to avoid serious absorption, refluorescence, or ion energy change corrections. A comparative study on PIXE and x-ray fluorescence is also included. Finally, the article discusses the applications of PIXE in three areas, namely, atmospheric physics and chemistry, external proton milliprobes and historical analysis, and PIXE microprobes.