This article describes concepts and tools that can be used by the failure analyst to understand and address deformation, cracking, or fracture after a stress-related failure has occurred. Issues related to the determination and use of stress are detailed. Stress is defined, and a procedure to deal with stress by determining maximum values through stress transformation is described. The article provides the stress analysis equations of typical component geometries and discusses some of the implications of the stress analysis relative to failure in components. It focuses on linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis, with some mention of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics analysis. The article describes the probabilistic aspects of fatigue and fracture. Information on crack-growth simulation of the material is also provided.

Distortion often is observed in the analysis of other types of failures, and consideration of the distortion can be an important part of the analysis. This article first considers that true distortion occurs when it was unexpected and in which the distortion is associated with a functional failure. Then, a more general consideration of distortion in failure analysis is introduced. Several common aspects of failure by distortion are discussed and suitable examples of distortion failures are presented for illustration. The article provides information on methods to compute load limits, errors in the specification of the material, and faulty process and their corrective measures to meet specifications. It discusses the general process of material failure analysis and special types of distortion and deformation failure.

Thermal nondestructive evaluation (TNDE) is an indirect process, so that regardless of the form of energy used to excite the sample, interaction with the internal structure of a part occurs through the process of heat conduction. This article discusses the steady-state configuration and selective excitation configuration of the signal-generation mechanisms in thermal nondestructive evaluation methods. The three widely used approaches to TNDE are surface-excited thermography, vibrothermography, and thermoelastic stress analysis. The article provides information on the common features, characteristics, and limitations of these approaches.

Thermoelastic stress analysis (TSA) an increasingly popular infrared (IR)-based technique for measuring stress on the surface of a part subjected to time-varying loads. This article begins by providing a theoretical and historical background of thermoelastic stress analysis. It then describes infrared detectors, such as quantum detectors and thermal/nonquantum detectors, for thermoelastic stress analysis. The article discusses the theoretical aspects for producing thermoelastic stress analysis data and the applications amenable to thermoelastic stress analysis. It concludes with information on the qualitative applications of thermoelastic stress analysis.

This article discusses the environmental influences on protective coating films that can result in deterioration. These environmental factors can be classified into four groups: (1) energy: solar, heat; (2) permeation: moisture, solvent, chemical, and gas; (3) stress: drying and curing-internal stress, and vibration-external stress; and (4) biological influences such as microbiological, mildew, and marine fouling.

This article commences with a brief introduction on the hardenability of carburized steels, and then reviews the factors used in the selection of carburizing steels and heat treatment methods. The factors include quench medium, stress considerations, case depth, and type of case. The article provides information on steels for carburized gears with emphasis on gear design requirements, selection process, selection of carbon content, case and core hardness, microstructure, and toughness and short-cycle fatigue.

This article focuses on the basic turbulent flow, and the thermal, mass-transfer, and hydrodynamic phenomena for use in modeling physical processes during induction melting. It provides a discussion on transport phenomena equations that includes the approximation of convective terms in the transport equation and computational schemes for the fluid dynamics equation. The aspects of computational algorithms for specific magnetohydrodynamic problems with mutual influence of the magnetic field and melt flow due to the changing shape of the free surface are also considered. The article illustrates the application of the basic equations and approaches formulated for electromagnetic field and melt turbulent flow for the numerical study of an induction crucible furnace.

This article provides a discussion on the analytical modeling and simulation of residual stress states developed in steel parts and the reasons for these varied final stress states. It illustrates how the metallurgical phase transformation of steel alloys can be applied in the simulation of induction hardening processes and the role of these phase transformations in affecting stress and distortion. Emphasis is placed on induction surface hardening, which is the main application of induction heating in steel heat treatment. The article concludes with examples of induction surface-hardened shafts and through-hardened shafts made of plain carbon steel, alloy steel, and limited hardenability steel.

Intensive quenching (IQ) is an alternative method of hardening steel parts, providing extremely high cooling rates within the martensite-phase formation temperature range. This article begins with the description on the general correlation between steel mechanical properties and cooling rate during IQ. It presents a review of batch intensive quenching (IQ-2) methods and single-part intensive quenching (IQ-3) methods as well as practical applications of these methods. The article provides useful information on the effect of heat flow on cooling in these methods, and discusses the improvements achieved in part microstructure, mechanical properties, and stress conditions of steel, after intensive quenching. It also describes the reasons for part distortion in IQ, and reviews the types of quench systems used in IQ-2 and IQ-3 processes.

This article describes the formation of residual stresses and distortion and the techniques for measuring residual stresses. It provides a discussion on the magnitude and distribution analysis of residual stresses and distortion in weldments. The article considers the effects of residual stresses and distortion on the brittle fracture and fatigue fracture of welded structures. The thermal treatments of weldments are also discussed.

This article is a comprehensive collection of formulas and numerical solutions, addressing many heat-transfer scenarios encountered in welds. It provides detailed explanations and dimensioned drawings in order to discuss the geometry of weld models, transfer of energy and heat in welds, microstructure evaluation, thermal stress analysis, and fluid flow in the weld pool.

This article is a comprehensive collection of tables containing formulas for metals processing, namely, casting and solidification, flat (sheet) rolling, conical-die extrusion, wire drawing, bending, and deep drawing. Formulas for compression, tension, and torsion testing of isotropic materials are included. The article also lists the formulas for effective stress, strain, and strain rate (isotropic material) in arbitrary and principal coordinates; dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics; and anisotropic sheet materials at various loading conditions.

This article provides a summary of the overall development of the finite element method (FEM) and its contribution to the materials forming industry. It focuses on the overall philosophy and evolution of the FEM for solving bulk forming issues. A number of applications of FEM are presented in the order they would be used in a typical manufacturing process sequence: primary materials processing, hot forging and cold forming, and product assembly. The article discusses four FEM modules: the deformation model, the heat-transfer model, the microstructural model, and the carbon diffusion model. The article also covers material fracture and die stress analysis and reviews optimization of the design of forming processes.

This article presents the Schmid's law that describes the response of crystal structures to loading. It describes the Taylor model to calculate the uniaxial yield stress of an isotropic face-centered cubic aggregate in terms of critical resolved shear stress. The article discusses the stress-based approach of the Bishop and Hill procedure to directly find stress states that could simultaneously operate at least five independent slip systems. It presents ways to find isostress or lower-bound yield loci for sheets having single-crystal orientation.

This article summarizes some issues and approaches in performing computational analyses of mechanical behavior, distortion, and hot tearing during solidification. It presents the governing equations and describes the methods used to solve them. The article reviews the finite element formulation, multidomain approaches, and arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian method in solidification modeling. It illustrates the sand casting of braking disks and continuous casting of steel slabs.

Compared to cold-formed parts, age-formed parts have lower residual stresses and consequently better stress corrosion resistance. This article addresses the technical issues that arise in the investigations of creep in precipitate-strengthened materials. The issues addressed help in developing alloys and tempers particularly suited for the age-forming process. The different steps involved in the program for predicting the final part shape are discussed. These basic steps involve developing mechanical tests to study creep at low temperatures and low stresses, describing low-temperature creep in terms of a constitutive model, and then using the constitutive model in a process model or finite element analysis to predict the final part shape.

This article focuses on the various forms of corrosion that occur in the passive range of aluminum and its alloys. It discusses pitting corrosion, galvanic corrosion, deposition corrosion, intergranular corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, exfoliation corrosion, corrosion fatigue, erosion-corrosion, atmospheric corrosion, filiform corrosion, and corrosion in water and soils. The article describes the effects of composition, microstructure, stress-intensity factor, and nonmetallic building materials on the corrosion behavior of aluminum and its alloys. It also provides information on the corrosion resistance of anodized aluminum in contact with foods, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals.

This article focuses on the factors that determine the extent of deformation a metal can withstand before cracking or fracture occurs. It informs that workability depends on the local conditions of stress, strain, strain rate, and temperature in combination with material factors. The article discusses the common testing techniques and process variables for workability prediction. It illustrates the simple and most widely used fracture criterion proposed by Cockcroft and Latham and provides a workability analysis using the fracture limit line. The article describes various workability tests, such as the tension test, ring compression test, plane-strain compression test, bend test, indentation test, and forgeability test. It concludes with information on the role of the finite-element modeling software used in workability analysis.

This article contains nine tables that present useful formulas for deformation analysis and workability testing. The tables present formulas for effective stress, strain, and strain rate in arbitrary coordinates, principal, compression and tension testing of isotropic material. The article also provides formulas for flat rolling, conical-die extrusion, wire drawing, deep drawing of cups from sheet metal, and bending, and formulas for anisotropic sheet materials.

Corrosion is classified into two categories: corrosion that is not influenced by any other process and corrosion that is influenced by another process such as the presence of stresses or erosion. This article discusses uniform corrosion, localized corrosion, metallurgically influenced corrosion, and microbiologically influenced corrosion, which fit under the classification of corrosion that is not influenced by any outside process. It also explains mechanically assisted degradation and environmentally induced cracking, which fit under the classification of corrosion that is influenced by an outside process.