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Nondestructive testing
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Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2024
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0006844
EISBN: 978-1-62708-387-4
Abstract
With regard to documentation and photography of a catastrophic event, the field investigator's duties are fundamentally different from those of the laboratory-based analyst, even though both share the same goals. This article presents a case study on documentation considerations during the field investigation. It provides a detailed discussion on the general procedure to downselect from a multicomponent assemblage to a set of potential primary failed components. The article describes visual examination in macrofractography.
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2024
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0006845
EISBN: 978-1-62708-387-4
Abstract
Fracture surfaces can provide an important and indispensable record of many factors in simple or complex failures. Visual examination of fracture surfaces can reveal the type and direction of loading, with fracture-surface features often providing definitive evidence of torsion, tension, bending, and compressive loads. This article discusses tools and techniques of visual examination and characteristic features of fracture features. A brief review of ductile and brittle fracture-surface features is provided. The article also describes macroscopic features that can be used to identify fracture-initiation sites, locations of final overload, and the directions of crack propagation. In addition, the use of these features to characterize loading at the time of failure is also described.
Book: Fractography
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 12
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2024
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v12.a0006846
EISBN: 978-1-62708-387-4
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on the following photographic equipment: point-and-shoot cameras, digital single-reflex cameras, stand-mounted digital zoom cameras, and digital microscope cameras. It presents two principal types of optical microscopes that are appropriate for visual examination of fractured parts: the stereomicroscope and the single-light-path digital microscope. The common features present on fracture surfaces are each considered separately, both in their significance and as photographic challenges. The article also presents a short note on low-magnification scanning electron microscopy and postcapture image processing.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 4F
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 February 2024
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v4F.a0006999
EISBN: 978-1-62708-450-5
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.9781627084390
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.a0006953
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
Abstract
This article presents the basic principle, characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of resonant ultrasound spectroscopy (RUS) methods in additive manufacturing. It focuses on the two types of RUS methods: the swept-sine method and the impulse excitation method. Representative significant results for additively manufactured complex parts obtained with the different RUS systems are also shown. The article also presents the basic principle and examples of nonlinear RUS methods.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.a0006954
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
Abstract
This article provides readers with a brief review of the applications of thermography in additive manufacturing (AM), which still is largely a research and development (R&D) effort. There is a particular focus on metals-based laser powder-bed fusion (L-PBF), although applications in directed-energy deposition (DED) and electron beam PBF (E-PBF) also are mentioned. The metrological basis of thermography is discussed in the article. Background information on radiation thermometry is provided, including how the various equations are applied. Finally, specific examples and lessons learned from various AM thermographic studies at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) are provided.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.a0007023
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
Abstract
This article covers defect formation and classification, followed by a brief description of the most common nondestructive testing (NDT) methods used for postbuild inspection. Descriptions of the established and emerging NDT techniques for in-process monitoring (IPM) and in-process inspection (IPI) in additive manufacturing (AM) also are provided, highlighting the advantages and limitations. The article concludes with a list of the main NDT methods and techniques used. As qualification and certification of AM parts is an urgent matter for the AM industry, a description of the current work carried out for developing standards is also included.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.a0006982
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
Abstract
This article focuses on ultrasonic testing (UT) applied to metallic additive manufacturing (AM) parts, presenting the basic principles of UT. It provides a detailed discussion on postprocess UT inspection of powder-bed-fusion-manufactured samples and directed-energy-deposition-manufactured samples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.a0006974
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
Abstract
X-ray radiography and computed tomography (CT) are nondestructive testing (NDT) tools particularly well suited to additive manufacturing (AM). A brief overview of NDT for AM is presented in this article, including other NDT methods, followed by identifying the key advantages and requirements for x-ray radiography and CT in AM. Less widely known applications of CT are also presented, including powder characterization, the evaluation of lattice structures, surface roughness measurements, and four-dimensional CT involving interrupted (before-after) CT scans of the same parts, or even in situ scans of the same part subjected to some processing or loading conditions. The article concludes with a discussion on the limits and some guidelines for the use of x-ray and CT for various AM materials.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 June 2023
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24A.a0006956
EISBN: 978-1-62708-439-0
Abstract
X-ray imaging is a nondestructive evaluation (NDE) technique in which x-ray waves interact with an observed sample to generate images from which information about the examined object can be derived. This article discusses x-ray imaging systems and applications, presenting the history and role of x-ray imaging. It describes different setups that are implemented at various facilities that conduct x-ray imaging for different types of metal AM processes. The article also discusses different types of dynamics observed in experimental metal AM processes using x-ray imaging systems. It presents the future of x-ray imaging in metal AM.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006851
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
Abstract
Failure analysis is an investigative process in which the visual observations of features present on a failed component and the surrounding environment are essential in determining the root cause of a failure. This article reviews the basic photographic principles and techniques that are applied to failure analysis, both in the field and in the laboratory. It discusses the processes involved in visual examination, field photographic documentation, and laboratory photographic documentation of failed components. The article describes the operating principles of each part of a professional digital camera. It covers basic photographic principles and manipulation of settings that assist in producing high-quality images. The need for accurate photographic documentation in failure analysis is also presented.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006936
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
Abstract
Of the many different nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques, ultrasonic inspection continues to be the leading nondestructive method for inspecting composite materials, because measurements can be quantitative and the typical defect geometries and orientations lend themselves to detection and characterization. This article focuses on the three common methods for ultrasonic nondestructive inspection of plastics, namely pitch-catch, through-transmission, and pulse-echo, as well as the three basic types of ultrasonic NDE scans: the A-scan, B-scan, and C-scan. The discussion includes the linear and phased array systems that are sometimes used for large-scale inspection tasks to reduce scan times, the various gating and image processing techniques, and how ultrasonic data are interpreted and presented. A brief section on future trends in ultrasonic inspection is presented at the end of the article.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006802
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
Abstract
Life assessment of structural components is used to avoid catastrophic failures and to maintain safe and reliable functioning of equipment. The failure investigator's input is essential for the meaningful life assessment of structural components. This article provides an overview of the structural design process, the failure analysis process, the failure investigator's role, and how failure analysis of structural components integrates into the determination of remaining life, fitness-for-service, and other life assessment concerns. The topics discussed include industry perspectives on failure and life assessment of components, structural design philosophies, the role of the failure analyst in life assessment, and the role of nondestructive inspection. They also cover fatigue life assessment, elevated-temperature life assessment, fitness-for-service life assessment, brittle fracture assessments, corrosion assessments, and blast, fire, and heat damage assessments.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006808
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
Abstract
This article describes some of the welding discontinuities and flaws characterized by nondestructive examinations. It focuses on nondestructive inspection methods used in the welding industry. The sources of weld discontinuities and defects as they relate to service failures or rejection in new construction inspection are also discussed. The article discusses the types of base metal cracks and metallurgical weld cracking. The article discusses the processes involved in the analysis of in-service weld failures. It briefly reviews the general types of process-related discontinuities of arc welds. Mechanical and environmental failure origins related to other types of welding processes are also described. The article explains the cause and effects of process-related discontinuities including weld porosity, inclusions, incomplete fusion, and incomplete penetration. Different fitness-for-service assessment methodologies for calculating allowable or critical flaw sizes are also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.9781627082952
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006758
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
Abstract
The goal of using nondestructive evaluation (NDE) in conjunction with failure analysis is to obtain the most comprehensive set of data in order to characterize the details of the damage and determine the factors that allowed the damage to occur. The NDE results can be used to determine optimal areas upon which to focus for sectioning and metallography in order to further investigate the condition of the component. This article provides information on the inspection method available for failure analysis, including standard methods such as visual testing, penetrant testing, and magnetic particle testing. It covers the effects of various factors on the properties of the part that may impact failure analysis, describes the characterization of damage modes and crack sizes, and finally discusses the processes involved in application of NDE results to failure analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006764
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
Abstract
Nondestructive testing (NDT), also known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE), includes various techniques to characterize materials without damage. This article focuses on the typical NDE techniques that may be considered when conducting a failure investigation. The article begins with discussion about the concept of the probability of detection (POD), on which the statistical reliability of crack detection is based. The coverage includes the various methods of surface inspection, including visual-examination tools, scanning technology in dimensional metrology, and the common methods of detecting surface discontinuities by magnetic-particle inspection, liquid penetrant inspection, and eddy-current testing. The major NDE methods for internal (volumetric) inspection in failure analysis also are described.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 24
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 June 2020
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v24.a0006564
EISBN: 978-1-62708-290-7
Abstract
This article covers in-line process monitoring of the metal additive manufacturing (AM) methods of laser and electron beam (e-beam) powder-bed fusion (PBF) and directed-energy deposition (DED). It focuses on methods that monitor the component directly throughout the build process. This article is organized by the type of AM process and by the physics of the monitoring method. The discussion covers two types of monitoring possible with the PBF process: monitoring the area of the powder bed and component and monitoring the melt pool created by the laser or e-beam. Methods for layer monitoring include optical and thermal methods that monitor light reflected or emitted in the visible and infrared wavelengths, respectively. Monitoring methods for laser directed-energy deposition (DED) discussed are those that measure the size and shape of the melt pool, the temperature of the melt pool, and the plasma generated by the laser as it interacts with the molten metal.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 17
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 August 2018
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v17.a0006438
EISBN: 978-1-62708-190-0
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on general nondestructive evaluation (NDE) science and considerations for specific technique selection. It explains the basic concept of flaw detection and evaluation and probability of detection. The article provides an overview of NDE methods with their applications, limitations, and advantages. It includes details on NDE codes, calibration standards, inspection frequency, guidance on how to perform inspections, applicability, and mandatory and nonmandatory practice. The article also provides tips on where to focus inspections in order to align with the likely areas of damage or degradation and a number of other aspects of inspection.
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