This datasheet provides information on key alloy metallurgy, mill product specifications, processing effects on physical and mechanical properties, and applications of high-strength aerospace alloys 2024 and Alclad 2024. It contains tables that list values of tensile property limits for 2024 sheet, plate, and round product forms. Figures illustrate the effect of stretching and aging on toughness of the 2024 sheet and the effect of temperature on tensile properties of 1.0 mm thick Alclad 2024-T3 sheet.

This article reviews the general characteristics of copper and copper alloys and explains how these characteristics affect the behavior of strip in different types of forming operations. These forming operations include blanking, piercing, bending, drawing and stretch forming, spinning, rubber-pad forming, and contour roll forming. Specialized forming operations such as hydraulic forming, embossing and swaging, and high-velocity metal forming are also reviewed. The article discusses the forming of smaller and larger parts from copper and copper alloy strips, as well as their property requirements and applications.

Sheet-forming processes provide considerable geometric and material flexibility in meeting these requirements, and design of parts for sheet forming must take into account these benefits as well as the limitations of the processes. This article reviews the basic forming operations and their general geometric features. These operations include hole making, flanging, bead and rib forming, and stretching and drawing for shallow or deep recesses. The article illustrates the general approach to design for sheet forming and the considerations that must be made for material savings and manufacturing ease, in addition to part function. It concludes with information on reducing the amount of scrap in sheet-forming operations.

This article briefly reviews the forming of steel tailor-welded blanks (TWB) with a discussion on the effects of welding on forming. It presents the parameters that are monitored to control the stamping operation for tailor-welded blanks. The article discusses weld factors such as the orientation of weld relative to metal movement in dies, the formability of TWB materials, die and press considerations, and specific factors for the drawing, stretching, and bending of steel tailor-welded blanks.

Bars, structural shapes, and long parts are straightened by bending, twisting, or stretching. This article describes the straightening of bars, shapes, and long parts by material displacement, heating, and presses. It explains the process of parallel-roll straightening, automatic press roll straightening, moving-insert straightening, parallel-rail straightening, and epicyclic straightening. The article concludes with a discussion on straightening in bar production.

In terms of forming, magnesium alloys are much more workable at elevated temperatures due to their hexagonal crystal structures. This article describes the deformation mechanisms of magnesium and provides information on the hot and cold forming processes of magnesium alloys and the lubricants used in the processes. It discusses the various forming processes of magnesium alloys. These include press-brake forming, deep drawing, manual and power spinning, rubber-pad forming, stretch forming, drop hammer forming, and precision forging.

Stretch forming is the forming of sheet, bars, and rolled or extruded sections over a die or form block of the required shape while the workpiece is held in tension. This article discusses the applicability, advantages, and machines and accessories of stretch forming. It provides a detailed discussion on four methods of stretch forming, namely, stretch draw forming, stretch wrapping, compression forming, and radial draw forming.

This article discusses the selection of types of stainless steel for various methods of forming based on the formability and on the power required for forming. It reviews the requirements of lubrication, blanking, and piercing. The article describes various forming methods, namely, press-brake forming, press forming, multiple-slide forming, deep drawing, spinning, rubber-pad forming, drop hammer forming¸ three-roll forming, contour roll forming, stretch forming, and bending of tubing.

This article describes different types of titanium alloys, including alloy Ti-6Al-4V, alpha and near-alpha alloys, and alpha-beta alloys. It explains the formability of titanium alloys with an emphasis on the Bauschinger effect. The article provides information on the tool materials and lubricants used in the forming process. It provides information on the cold and hot forming, superplastic forming, and combination of superplastic forming/diffusion bonding. The article discusses the various forming processes of these titanium alloys, including press-brake forming, power (shear) spinning, rubber-pad forming, stretch forming, contour roll forming, creep forming, vacuum forming, drop hammer forming, joggling, and explosive forming.

This article discusses the general formability considerations of aluminum alloys. To conduct a complete analysis of a formed part, the required mechanical properties, as determined by several standard tests, must be considered. The article describes tension testing and other tests designed to simulate various production forming processes, including cup tests and bend tests, which help in determining these properties. It provides information on the equipment and tools, which are used in the forming of aluminum alloys. The article presents a list of lubricants that are most widely used in the forming. It also analyzes the various forming processes of aluminum alloys. The processes include blanking and piercing, bending, press-brake forming, contour roll forming, deep drawing, spinning, stretch forming, rubber-pad forming, warm forming, superplastic forming, explosive forming, electrohydraulic forming, electromagnetic forming, hydraulic forming, shot peening, and drop hammer forming.

This article describes the effect of temperature, composition, strain rate, and fabrication history on the results obtained in the forming of beryllium as well as the safety measures required. It provides information on the equipment, tooling, dies, and workpieces used for forming beryllium. The article discusses the role of lubrication, blank development, tool designs, and strain rates, in deep drawing. It also provides information on the tooling and applications of three-roll bending, stretch forming, and spinning.

This article provides an overview of the incremental sheet forming (ISF) process and discusses the process variations of ISF. These variations include single-point incremental forming, two-point incremental forming, and kinematic incremental sheet forming. The article discusses the machines and equipment used in the process and describes the process parameters, process mechanics, and process limits. It illustrates multistage forming strategies and summarizes difficulties that exist with regard to the finite-element process simulation of ISF process. The article also describes hybrid process variations, such as stretch forming and laser-assisted ISF.

This article introduces process factors that influence die wear and lubrication for metal forming operations such as bending, spinning, stretching, deep drawing, and ironing. It discusses the effects of part shape, sheet thickness, tolerance requirements, sheet metal, and lubrication on shallow forming dies. The article describes the wear of material for dies to draw round and square cup-shaped metal parts in a press. It also discusses the effect of process conditions on the shallow forming dies.

Sheet metal forming operations are so diverse in type, extent, and rate that no single test provides an accurate indication of the formability of a material in all situations. This article presents an overview of types of forming, formability problems, and principal methods of measuring deformation. It reviews the effect of materials properties and temperature on formability. The article provides a detailed discussion on the two major categories of formability tests such as the intrinsic test, including uniaxial tension testing, plane-strain tension testing, biaxial stretch testing, and simulative tests such as bending tests, stretching tests, the Ohio State University test, the drawing test, and stretch-drawing tests. It extends the correlation between simulative tests and materials properties using forming limit diagrams and circle grid analysis, and discusses the improvements to the forming limit diagram technology.

This article describes the presses that are mechanically or hydraulically powered and used for producing sheet, strip, and plate from sheet metal. It also presents the JIC standards for presses, compares the presses based on power source, details the selection criteria and provides information on the various drive systems and the auxiliary equipment. It describes the selection of die materials and lubricants for sheet metal forming and provides information on the lubrication mechanisms and selection with a list of lubricant types for forming of specific sheet materials of ferrous or nonferrous metals. The article reviews the various types of forming processes such as blanking, piercing, fine-edge blanking, press bending, press forming, forming by multiple-slide machines, deep drawing, stretch forming, spinning, rubber-pad forming, three-roll forming, contour roll forming, drop hammer forming, explosive forming, electromagnetic forming, and superplastic forming.