The high-alloyed white irons are primarily used for abrasion-resistant applications and are readily cast into the parts needed in machinery for crushing, grinding, and handling of abrasive materials. This article discusses three major groups of the high-alloy white cast irons: nickel-chromium white irons, chromium-molybdenum irons, and high-chromium white irons. Mechanical properties for three white irons representing each of these three general groups are presented as bar graphs. The article also describes the various heat treatments of a martensitic microstructure, including austenitization, quenching, tempering, annealing, and stress relieving.

Cast irons, like steels, are iron-carbon alloys but with higher carbon levels than steels to take advantage of eutectic solidification in the binary iron-carbon system. This article introduces the solid-state heat treatment of iron castings and describes the various processes of heat treatment of cast iron. It provides information on stress relieving, annealing, normalizing, through hardening, and surface hardening of these castings. The article discusses general considerations for the heat treatment of cast iron. Cast irons are occasionally nitrided for various applications with the aim of enhancing surface hardness and corrosion resistance of the products. The article describes molten salt bath cyaniding and ion nitriding of cast iron.

Gray irons are a group of cast irons that form flake graphite during solidification, in contrast to the spheroidal graphite morphology of ductile irons. This article describes surface hardening of gray irons by flame and induction heating. It provides information on the classification of the gray irons in ASTM specification. The article presents examples that illustrate the use of stress relieving to eliminate distortion and cracking. It describes the three annealing treatments of gray iron: ferritizing annealing, medium (or full) annealing, and graphitizing annealing. The article discusses the parameters of the tensile strength and hardness of a normalized gray iron casting. These include combined carbon content, pearlite spacing, and graphite morphology. The article concludes with a discussion on the induction hardening of gray iron castings.

High-potential high-alloy tool steels (HATS) containing martensitic microstructure with undissolved hard phases are achieved by a number of complex heat treating cycles, predominantly tempering. This article focuses on three tempering treatments, namely, salt bath heat treatment, austenitizing, and vacuum heat treatment. It explains the result of these tempering processes with HSS M2 grade of HATS.

This article describes the effects of undissolved carbides formed by segregation of alloying elements on the hardness of the powder-metallurgical (PM) high-alloy tool steels (HATS). It explains the calculation of exact stoichiometric carbon content that depends on the required martensite hardness, amount of carbon forming alloying elements, types of undissolved carbides during austenitizing, and the densities of the carbides. Microhardness values for carbides in HATS are also listed.

This article provides a discussion on heat treating practices, namely, carburizing, normalizing, annealing, stress relieving, preheating, austenitizing, quenching, tempering, and nitriding for various grades of mold and corrosion-resistant tool steels. It details the characteristics of various grades of mold and corrosion-resistant tool steels, including type P20, type P20Mod, AISI type 420, and AISI type 440B.

This article is a compilation of tables that present information on austenitizing temperatures for direct-hardening carbon and alloy steels, case depth of steels for different carburizing times and temperatures, typical heat treatments for case hardening of carbon and carburizing of alloy steels, as well as direct hardening of carbon steels and alloy steels.

Gray irons are a group of cast irons that form flake graphite during solidification, in contrast to the spheroidal graphite morphology of ductile irons. The heat treatment of gray irons can considerably alter the matrix microstructure with little or no effect on the size and shape of the graphite achieved during casting. This article provides a detailed account of classes of gray iron, and heat treating methods of gray irons with examples. These methods include stress relieving, annealing, normalizing, transformation hardening, austenitizing, quenching, austempering, martempering, flame hardening, induction hardening, and nitriding.

Tool steels are an important class of steels due to their distinct applications and their specific heat treating issues. This article provides an overview of the classification and production of tool steels, and discusses the procedures and process control requirements for heat treating principal types of tool steels. It reviews the various heat treating processes, namely, normalizing, annealing, stress relieving, austenitizing, quenching, and tempering, and surface treatments and cold treating. The article also provides information on the applicability of these processes to various types of tool steels.

Ductile cast irons are heat treated to create matrix microstructures and associated mechanical properties not readily obtained in the as-cast condition. This article provides a detailed account of the general characteristics of ductile irons. It discusses the most important heat treatments of ductile irons, namely, stress relieving, austenitizing, annealing, normalizing, quenching, martempering, austempering, and surface hardening. The article elucidates the effects of these heat treatments on the mechanical properties of the ductile irons.

This article provides a detailed discussion on the heating equipment used for austenitizing, quenching, and tempering tool steels. These include salt bath furnaces, controlled atmosphere furnaces, fluidized-bed furnaces, and vacuum furnaces. The article discusses the types of nitriding and nitrocarburizing processes and the equipment required for heat treating tool steels to improve hardness, wear resistance, and thermal fatigue. The various nitriding and nitrocarburizing processes covered are salt bath nitrocarburizing, gas nitriding and nitrocarburizing, and plasma nitriding and nitrocarburizing.

Air hardening steel is a type of steel that has deep hardenability and can be hardened in large sections by air cooling. This article discusses the principles of heat treatment of air-hardening steel, and describes the recommended heat treating practices for air-hardening high-strength structural steels, namely, H11 Mod, H13 steel, 300M steel, D-6A and D-6AC, and AF1410 steel. It also provides information on recommended heat treating practices for air-hardening martensitic stainless steels.

This article focuses on various heat treatment practices recommended for different types of high-speed tool steels. Commonly used methods include annealing, stress relieving, preheating, austenitizing, quenching, tempering, carburizing, and nitriding. The article describes hardening for various types of cutting tools, namely, broaches, chasers, milling cutters, drills, taps, reamers, form tools, and hobs, and for thread rolling dies, threading dies, and bearings.

Dimensional and shape changes caused by heat treatment have been the subject of scientific and industrial research for a very long time. This article provides an overview of the complexity of distortion and stress generation during heat treatment of steels. It discusses the measurement and evaluation of dimensional and shape changes with examples. The article describes the mechanisms at work during the generation of stresses and distortion during heat treatment. A hypothetical experiment with increasing application to real life is used to develop a systematization of unavoidable size and shape changes. The article also provides information on the carriers of distortion potential that cause measureable size and shape changes.

This article focuses on induction hardening process for heat treating operations specifically designed to result in proper microstructure/property combinations in either localized or in the final parts. It briefly reviews the heat treating basics for conventional heat treating operations of steels with iron-carbon phase and transformation diagrams. The article provides a summary of the important temperatures, definitions, and microstructural constituents associated with heat-treated steels. Basic transformation characteristics of heat-treated steels are reviewed. The article also discusses the various aspects of steel heat treatment by induction processing, and concludes with a description of steel alloys for induction processing.

This article commences with a description of the principles of induction heating followed by a discussion on the high temperature electrical, magnetic, and thermal properties of steel, which influence the performance of induction heaters. The importance of eddy current distribution in a workpiece is explained, with emphasis on the skin effect. The article discusses typical procedures for induction hardening of steel, namely, austenitizing and quenching to form martensite either on the surface (case hardening) or through the entire section (through hardening). It briefly describes induction heating parameters for surface hardening, through hardening, tempering, and some general heating operations in metalworking.

Austenitization refers to heating into the austenite phase field, during which the austenite structure is formed. This article highlights the purpose of austenitization, and reviews the mechanism and importance of thermodynamics and kinetics of austenite structure using an iron-carbon binary phase diagram. It also describes the effects of austenite grain size, and provides useful information on controlling the austenite grain size using the thermomechanical process.

This article describes the advantages of martempering and the use of oil and salt as quenchants in the martempering process. It also discusses safety precautions to be followed by an operator and reviews the steels that are suitable for martempering. The article provides information on the importance of controlling process variables in martempering, including austenitizing temperature, temperature of the martempering bath, time in the bath, salt contamination, water additions to salt, agitation, and the rate of cooling from the martempering bath. It also describes specific situations in which distortion problems have been encountered during martempering. The article contains tables that indicate typical applications of martempering in salt and oil by listing commonly treated steel parts and giving details of martempering procedures and hardness requirements. The article also lists equipment requirements for oil and salt martempering of steel.

Tool steels are prepared for metallographic examination in the same way as carbon steels with a few variations owing to hardness and alloying differences. This article explains what makes tool steels different and how to compensate for it when sectioning, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching. It provides information and data on composition, hot working, austenitizing, tempering, and powder metal manufacturing and explains how it affects tool steel microstructure, using more than 100 detailed images.