Film radiography requires the development of the exposed film so that the latent image becomes visible for viewing. It describes the general characteristics of film, including speed, gradient, and graininess, and the factors affecting film selection and exposure time. The article discusses the three major inspection techniques for tubular sections, namely, the double-wall, double-image technique; the double-wall, single-image technique; and the single-wall, single-image technique. It illustrates the arrangements of penetrameters and identification markers for the radiography of plates, cylinders, and flanges. The article discusses various control methods, including the use of lead screens; protection against backscatter and scatter from external objects; and the use of masks, diaphragms, collimators, and filtration. The radiographic appearance of specific types of flaws is also discussed. The article concludes with a discussion on two methods of radiographic film processing: manual and automatic processing.

This article provides information on the application of nondestructive examination (NDE) technologies to tube and pipe products. These include modeling and simulation methods, eddy-current methods, magnetic methods, acoustic methods, and physical methods. A summary of nondestructive examination methods based on flaw type and product stage is presented in a table. The article also discusses in-service inspection of tubular products and presents an example that illustrates the importance of nondestructive testing (NDT) for welds in austenitic stainless steel tubing.

Estimation of process parameters for selective heating and heat treating of simple- and complex-shaped workpieces in induction hardening can be accurately carried out using numerical simulation techniques such as the finite-element analysis and the finite-different method. Along with the significant benefits of modern numerical simulations, it is important to be able to use rough estimation techniques to develop a general understanding of the critical parameters of a particular induction heating system. This article discusses such numerical techniques for estimating the critical parameters: workpiece power estimation; estimation of electrical and thermal efficiency of the coil; and frequency selection for heating solid cylinders, tubes, pipes, slabs, plates, strips, and rectangular workpieces.

This article begins with a discussion on the factors considered in the selection of bending methods. It presents a detailed description of the types of bending method, machines and tools used in the bending and forming of tubing. The article provides an overview of bending tubing with and without a mandrel and hot bending. It concludes with a discussion on the bending of thin-wall tubes and lubrication for tube bending.

This article describes the control of water chemistry in the steam cycle of a power plant for achieving corrosion control, deposition prevention, and higher cycle efficiency. It discusses the materials requirements of the components exposed to supercritical water in supercritical (SC) and ultrasupercritical (USC) power plants. These components include high-pressure steam piping and headers, superheater and reheater tubing, water wall tubing in the boiler, high-and intermediate-pressure rotors, rotating blades, and bolts in the turbine section. The article reviews the boiler alloys, used in SC and USC boilers, such as ferritic steels, austenitic steels, and nickel-base alloys. It provides information on the materials used in turbine applications such as ferritic rotor steels, turbine blade alloys, and bolting materials. The article explains various factors influencing steamside corrosion in SC power plants. It also deals with the role of overall efficiency in the USC power generation.

A wide range of flow-formed open- and close-ended shapes are currently available in a variety of difficult-to-form materials, including titanium alloys and nickel-base super alloys. This article describes the two basic methods of flow forming that are characterized by the position of the rolls during the forming process. The flow forming methods include staggered-roll flow forming process and in-line flow-forming process. Typical mechanical properties of flow-formed materials in various conditions are summarized in a table. Proper process controls and subsequent product qualification tests are critical to assure optimal performance of the flow-formed tubular component. The article discusses the most commonly required process control parameters and the effects of forming speed and temperature in the flow forming process.

This article discusses the operation of upset forging machines and selection of the machine size. It describes several types of upsetter heading tools and their materials. The article reviews the cold shearing and hot shearing methods for preparing blanks for hot upset forging. It deals with various upsetting processes: offset upsetting, double-end upsetting, upsetting with sliding dies, upsetting pipe and tubing, and electric upsetting. The article also provides information on hot forging and cold forging.

Radial forging is a hot- or cold-forming process that uses two or more radially moving anvils or dies to produce solid or tubular components with constant or varying cross sections along their lengths. This article focuses on the workpiece configuration, workpiece materials, machines, dies, advantages, and limitations of radial forging. It concludes with a discussion on the applications of radial forging.

Rotary swaging is an incremental metalworking process for reducing the cross-sectional area or otherwise changing the shape of bars, tubes, or wires by repeated radial blows with two or more dies. This article discusses the applicability of swaging and metal flow during swaging. It describes the types of rotary swaging machines, auxiliary tools, and swaging dies used for rotary swaging and the procedure for determining the side clearance in swaging dies. The article presents an overview of automated swaging machines and tube swaging, with and without a mandrel. It analyzes the effect of reduction, feed rate, die taper angle, surface contaminants, lubrication, and material response on swaging operation. The article discusses the applications for which swaging is the best method for producing a given shape, and compares swaging with alternative processes. It concludes with a discussion on special applications of swagging.

The drawing process, one of the oldest metal forming operations, allows excellent surface finishes and closely controlled dimensions to be obtained in long products that have constant cross sections. This article discusses the basic mechanics and preparation steps of drawing. It presents an overview of the processes, equipment, dies and die materials, and lubrication associated with drawing of rod, wire, bar, and tube. The article also provides a discussion on the design considerations and manufacturing of commercial superconducting multifilamentary conductors.

This article describes the characteristics of tubing of heat exchangers with respect to general corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, selective leaching, and oxygen-cell attack, with examples. It illustrates the examination of failed parts of heat exchangers by using sample selection, visual examination, microscopic examination, chemical analysis, and mechanical tests. The article explains corrosion fatigue of tubing of heat exchangers caused by aggressive environment and cyclic stress. It also discusses the effects of design, welding practices, and elevated temperatures on the failures of heat exchangers.

This article describes processes and equipment that are used to produce composite tubular parts. The processes include sheeting, pattern cutting, tube rolling, shrink tape debulking, and finishing. The article provides a discussion on materials that are most suitable for tube rolling: preimpregnated materials and unidirectional tapes. The article also discusses wrapping techniques of cylindrical and tapered tubes, such as convolute and spiral wrapping.

This article presents effective stress equations that are based on the von Mises criterion, the Tresca criterion, and the Huddleston criterion. It describes the calculation of effective stresses for different cases: elastic stresses, steady-state creep stresses, stresses in a fully plastic case, and thermal stresses in a tube. The article illustrates the comparison of life predictions by the stress criteria and presents a simple mean diameter hoop stress equation, which is used for designing components. It also provides information on the multiaxial creep ductility of tubular components and multiaxial testing methods.

The main objective for the study of combined-stress fatigue is to obtain fatigue data for axles and to find the criterion for fatigue limit under combined stress. This article begins with a description of the stress states of combined stress and stress fields near crack tips. It provides an account of the various biaxial and multiaxial fatigue testing methods, specimen geometries, and stress intensity factors important in the study multiaxial fatigue. Widely used test methods are the torsion-rotating bending fatigue test and biaxial and triaxial fatigue tests. Common specimen geometries include rectangular plate specimens, cruciform specimens, compact tension shear specimens, compact shear specimens, mode II crack growth specimen, circumferentially notched cylindrical specimens, tubular specimens containing a slit, and solid cylindrical specimens containing a small hole or initial crack.

This article provides an overview of the safety aspects and integrity concept for pressure vessels, piping, and tubing. It focuses on the fracture mechanics approaches used to validate components with longitudinal cracks and circumferential cracks and to analyze crack growth behavior under cyclic loading. Full-scale testing facilities and the typical test results required for various applications are discussed. The article also presents information on the transferability of mechanical properties of materials.

This article discusses the mechanics, surface preparation and principles of metal forming operations such as drawing, bending (draw bending, compression bending, roll bending, and stretch bending), spinning, and straightening of bars, tubes, wires, rods and structural shapes. The article also discusses the machines and tools, including dies and mandrels, and lubricants used for these metal forming operations.

This article discusses the classifications, specifications, applications and methods for producing welded and seamless steel tubular products, including pipes and tubes. Common types of pipes include standard pipe, conduit pipe, piling pipe, pipe for nipples, transmission or line pipe, water main pipe, oil country tubular goods, water well pipe, and pressure pipe. Pipes in suitable sizes, and most of the products classified as tubing, both seamless and welded, may be cold finished. Pressure tubes are given a separate classification by both the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and producers. The term tube covers three groups, including pressure tubes, structural tubing, and mechanical tubing.

This article discusses the applications and tensile properties of selected copper tube alloys, as well as the methods for producing copper tubular products, namely extrusion and rotary piercing. It explains the methods available for the finishing of copper tubular products, such as tube welding, cold drawing, and tube reducing. The article lists the standard dimensions and tolerances for several kinds of copper tubes and pipes in the ASTM specifications, along with other requirements for the tubular products.

This article provides information on fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth of structural steels. It describes fatigue life behavior in terms of unnotched fatigue limits, notch effects, axial strain-life fatigue, and mean stress effects. The article analyzes the mechanisms of corrosion fatigue crack initiation and prevention of corrosion fatigue. It presents case histories of fatigue failure of various steel components. The article reviews the failure of coiled tubing in a drilling application and the failure of coiled tubing due to hydrogen sulfide exposure, with examples.