Alloy 362.0, low-iron premium die-casting alloy, is made from recycled secondary metal scrap and was developed to have equivalent or better mechanical properties than Silafont-36 and/or Aural-2. This datasheet provides information on key alloy metallurgy, processing effects on physical and mechanical properties, and applications of this alloy.

Aluminum possesses many characteristics that make it highly compatible with recycling. Production of aluminum from scrap has a number of advantages. This article discusses the technology for the recovery, sorting, and remelting of aluminum. It describes the collection and acquisition of aluminum scrap in transportation, packaging, electrical and electronic, and building and construction sectors. The article reviews the technologies used to accomplish comminution for aluminum: shearing, knife shredding, and swing-hammer shredding. It provides a description of the devices used in scrap sorting, such as hand sorting, air classification, magnetic separation, eddy-current separation, heavy-media separation, and sensor-based sorting. The article also describes thermal processing, refining and casting, and dross processing of aluminum. It provides information on reverberatory and electric furnaces used for melting aluminum.

This article focuses on the recycling of metals including iron and steel, stainless steel, superalloys, nickel, aluminum, copper, precious metals, lead, magnesium, tin, titanium, and zinc. It provides information on the identification and sorting of scrap metals and discusses the equipment and procedures used for small-scale and large-scale scrapping operations.

This article focuses on the properties of conventional wrought superalloys based on nickel, iron, and cobalt, as well as on the properties of alloys produced from powder. The powder metallurgy (P/M) category includes alloys that were originally developed as casting alloys; new alloy compositions developed specifically to benefit from powder processing; and oxide dispersion strengthened alloys (particularly those produced by mechanical alloying). The article discusses some of the applications of superalloys and emphazises the interplay between chemical composition, microstructure, consolidation method, mechanical properties and surface stability of wrought nickel alloys. Vacuum melting processes are a necessity for many nickel- and iron-nickel-base alloys because of the presence of aluminum and titanium as solutes. Cobalt-base alloys do not usually contain these elements and may be melted in air. An appendix to this article presents the property data and corresponding information on a family of cobalt-chromium-tungsten-carbon alloys that use P/M processing.

The powder metallurgy (P/M) process has been used primarily for the production of advanced high-speed tool steels. However, the P/M process is also being applied to the manufacture of improved cold-work and hot-work tool steels. The basic heat treatments for P/M high-speed tool steels include preheating, austenitizing, quenching, and tempering. This article describes manufacturing properties, cutting tool properties, and applications of P/M high-speed tool steels. It discusses the development of P/M high-speed alloy steels that cannot be made by conventional methods because of their high carbon, nitrogen, or alloy contents. For high-speed tool steels, a number of important end-user properties have been improved by powder processing; machinability, grindability, dimensional control during heat treatment, and cutting performance under difficult conditions where high edge toughness is essential. Several of these advantages also apply to P/M cold- and hot-work tool steels, which, compared to conventional tool steels, offer better toughness and ductility for cold-work tooling, better thermal fatigue life, and greater toughness for hot-work tooling.

Structural steels with very high strength levels are often referred to as ultrahigh-strength steels. This article describes the commercial structural steels capable of a minimum yield strength of 1380 MPa (200 ksi). The ultrahigh-strength class of constructional steels includes several distinctly different families of steels. The article focuses on medium-carbon low-alloy steels, medium-alloy air-hardening steels, and high fracture toughness steels. The medium-carbon low-alloy family of ultrahigh-strength steels includes AISI/SAE 4130, the higher-strength 4140, and the deeper hardening, higher-strength 4340. Also from this family are descriptions for the 300M, D-6a and D-6ac, 6150, and 8640 steels. The medium-alloy air-hardening family of ultrahigh-strength steels includes H11 modified and H13 steels. The high fracture toughness family of ultrahigh-strength steels includes HP-9-4-30 steel and AF1410 steel. The article explains the mechanical properties and the heat treatments of the medium-carbon low-alloy steels, medium-alloy air-hardening steels, and high fracture toughness steels.

Forgings are classified in various ways, beginning with the general classifications open die and closed die. They are also classified according to how they are made; such as hammer upset forgings, ring-rolled forgings, and multiple-ram press forgings; and in terms of the close-to-finish factor or amount of stock that must be removed to satisfy the dimensional and detail requirements of the finished part. In addition to types and classifications, the article discusses critical design factors and ways to ensure that the resulting forgings measure up to metallurgical, mechanical property, and dimensional accuracy requirements. The responsibility for design verification is vested in material control, which depends on the proper application of drawings, specifications, manufacturing process controls, and quality assurance programs. The article addresses each of these areas as well as related topics; including stress-induced fatigue failure, tolerances, machining allowances; and the fundamentals of hammer and press forgings, hot upset forgings, and hot extrusion forgings.

This article begins with an overview of steel wire configurations and sizes followed by a discussion on various wiremaking practices. The wiredrawing operation is discussed, including cleaning, die design, use of lubricants and welds, finishes, coating, and thermal treatments. Metallic coatings can be applied to wire by various methods, including hot dip processes, electrolytic process, and metal cladding by rolling metallic strip over the wire. These wires are normally grouped into broad usage categories. These categories, as well as some items in each category, are described in the article under their quality descriptions or commodity names. These include low-carbon steel wire for general usage, wire for structural applications, wire for packaging and container applications, wire for prestressed concrete, wire for electrical or conductor applications, rope wire, mechanical spring wire for general use, wire for fasteners, mechanical spring wire for special applications, upholstery spring construction wire, and alloy wire.

Two high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) families, acicular-ferrite steels and pearlite-reduced steels, contain microalloying additions of vanadium and niobium. Vanadium, niobium, and titanium combine preferentially with carbon and/or nitrogen to form a fine dispersion of precipitated particles in the steel matrix. This article summarizes the metallurgical effects of vanadium, niobium, molybdenum, and titanium. The metallurgical fundamentals were first applied to forgings in the early 1970s. The ultimate strength of first- and second-generation microalloy steels is adequate for many engineering applications, but these steels do not achieve the toughness of conventional quenched and tempered alloys under normal hot-forging conditions. Third-generation microalloy steels differ from their predecessors in that they are direct quenched from the forging temperature to produce microstructures of lath martensite with uniformly distributed temper carbides. Without subsequent heat treatment, these materials achieve properties, including toughness, similar to those of standard quenched and tempered steels.

Critical structural components must be fabricated from steels that exhibit adequate low-temperature fracture toughness because of the serious consequences of failure due to brittle fracture. This article reviews fracture resistance assessment procedures for welded joints and includes discussions on fatigue crack growth and fracture toughness. It presents the fracture toughness requirements specified by different design codes, summarizes the specifications for offshore structural steels provided by international standards organizations, and discusses the applications of these specifications. The article also focuses on advances made in steel technology and the impact of these advances on the fracture toughness of steel.

This article reviews the properties of cast steels that are specified for liquid corrosion service at temperatures above and below 650 deg C. Stainless steel castings are usually classified based on their resistance to corrosion and heat and generally fall into one category or the other. The article describes alternate methods for classifying cast stainless steels, one is based on grade designations, the other on microstructural analysis. It also addresses heat treatment, pointing out its similarities with the thermal processing of wrought materials, and establishes the importance of mechanical properties in material selection. The article presents information on the selection process and provides a detailed list of heat-resistant cast steels and alloys. It also includes key manufacturing characteristics to aid in foundry and welding-related decisions.

This article discusses the properties of threaded fasteners made from carbon and low-alloy steels containing a maximum of 0.55% carbon. It provides guidelines for the selection of steels for bolts, studs, and nuts intended for use at temperatures between -50 and 370 deg C. The article also discusses steels rated for service above 370 deg C and describes internationally recognized grade designations. The specifications provided can be used to outline fastener requirements, control manufacturing processes, and establish functional or performance standards. The most commonly used protective metal coatings for ferrous metal fasteners; zinc, cadmium, and aluminum; are described as well.

Steel castings can be made from any of the many types of carbon and alloy steel produced in wrought form. They are divided into four general groups according to composition. Carbon and low-alloy steel castings can meet a wide range of application requirements because composition and heat treatment can be selected to achieve specific combinations of properties, including hardness, strength, ductility, fatigue, and toughness. This article discusses physical, mechanical, and engineering properties as well as fatigue properties and the effects of section size and heat treatment. Highly stressed steel castings for aircraft and for high-pressure or high-temperature service must pass rigid nondestructive inspection.

The process of fatigue failure consists of three stages: initial fatigue damage leading to crack initiation; crack propagation to some critical size; and final, sudden fracture of the remaining cross section. Variations in mechanical properties, composition, microstructure, and macrostructure, along with their subsequent effects on fatigue life, have been studied extensively to aid in the appropriate selection of steel to meet specific end-use requirements. The metallurgical variables having the most pronounced effects on the fatigue behavior of carbon and low-alloy steels are strength, ductility, cleanliness, residual stresses, surface conditions, and aggressive environments. The article discusses the stress-based and strain-based approach to fatigue. The application of fatigue data in engineering design is complicated by the characteristic scatter of fatigue data; variations in surface conditions of actual parts; variations in manufacturing processes such as bending, forming, and welding; and the uncertainty of environmental and loading conditions in service.

Bearing steels, which include high-carbon and low-carbon types, can be divided into service-based classes, such as normal service, high-temperature service, and service under corrosive conditions. This article discusses the importance of matching the hardenability and quenching of a bearing steel. It also discusses the typical microstructure of a high-carbon through-hardened bearing, and shows typical case and core microstructures in carburized bearing materials. Apart from a satisfactory microstructure, which is obtained through the proper combination of steel grade and heat treatment, the single most important factor in achieving high levels of rolling-contact fatigue life in bearings is the cleanliness, or freedom from harmful nonmetallic inclusions, of the steel. Alloy conservation and a more consistent heat-treating response are benefits of using specially designed bearing steels. The selection of a carburizing steel for a specific bearing section is based on the heat-treating practice of the producer, either direct quenching from carburizing or reheating for quenching, and on the characteristics of the quenching equipment.

This article discusses the bulk formability or workability of steels. It describes their formability characteristics and presents procedures for various formability tests used for carbon and alloy steels. Tests for bulk formability can be divided into two main categories: primary tests and specialized tests. The article compares the processing of microalloyed plate and bar products. The article focuses on the use of torsion testing to evaluate the forgeability of carbon and alloy steels and presents information on measuring flow stress. The article discusses the metallurgy and thermomechanical processing of high-strength low-alloy (microalloyed) steels and the various parts of the rolling operation. The article summarizes some of the common tests for determining formability in open-die and closed-die forgings.

Stainless steels are widely used at elevated temperatures when carbon and low-alloy steels do not provide adequate corrosion resistance and/or sufficient strength at these temperatures. This article deals with the wrought stainless steels used for high temperature applications. It gives some typical compositions of wrought heat-resistant stainless steels, which are grouped into ferritic, martensitic, austenitic, and precipitation-hardening (PH) grades. Quenched and tempered martensitic stainless steels are essentially martensitic and harden when air cooled from the austenitizing temperature. These alloys offer good combinations of mechanical properties. The article focuses on mechanical property considerations and corrosion resistance considerations of stainless steels. The corrosion and oxidation resistance of wrought stainless steels is similar to that of cast stainless steels with comparable compositions.

Steel sheet is often coated in coil form prior to fabrication to save time, reduce production costs, and streamline operations. This article examines the most common precoating methods and provides a metallurgical understanding of how they impact the manufacturability, performance, and service life of the host material. The article covers metallic coatings, including zinc, aluminum, zinc-aluminum alloys, tin, and terne; pretreatment or phosphate coatings; and preprimed and painted finishes based on organic coatings.

Steel springs are made in many types, shapes, and sizes, ranging from delicate hairsprings for instrument meters to massive buffer springs for railroad equipment. The primary focus of this article is small steel springs that are cold wound from wire. Wire springs are of four types: compression springs (including die springs), extension springs, torsion springs, and wire forms. Chemical composition, mechanical properties, surface quality, availability, and cost are the principal factors to be considered in selecting steel for springs. Both carbon and alloy steels are used extensively. The three types of wire used in the greatest number of applications of cold formed springs are hard-drawn spring wire, oil tempered wire and music wire. Residual stresses can increase or decrease the strength of a spring material, depending on their direction. Steel springs are often electroplated with zinc or cadmium to protect them from corrosion and abrasion. Although some hot-wound springs are made of steels that are also used for cold-wound springs, hot-wound springs are usually much larger, which results in significant metallurgical differences. All spring design is based on Hooke’s law; charts and formulas are available to aid in the design of springs.

This article discusses tubular products made from wrought carbon or alloy constructional steels, particularly pipe, specialty tubing, and oil country tubular goods. The article covers product classifications, available specifications, chemical compositions, sizes, and other dimensional attributes. Some of the common types of pipe are standard pipe, conduit pipe, piling pipe, pipe for nipples, transmission or line pipe, water main and water well pipe, and pressure pipe. Pipe in suitable sizes and most products classified as tubing, both seamless and welded, may be cold finished. Pressure tubes, a separate classification, include double-wall brazed tubing, structural tubing, welded mechanical tubing, continuous-welded cold-finished mechanical tubing, and seamless mechanical tubing.