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ultrasonic inspection model
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Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001639
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... Abstract This paper describes the remote ultrasonic (UT) examinations of a high-level radioactive waste storage tank at the Savannah River Site in South Carolina. The inspections, carried out by E.R. Holland, R.W. Vande Kamp, and J.B. Elder, were performed from the contaminated, annular space...
Abstract
This paper describes the remote ultrasonic (UT) examinations of a high-level radioactive waste storage tank at the Savannah River Site in South Carolina. The inspections, carried out by E.R. Holland, R.W. Vande Kamp, and J.B. Elder, were performed from the contaminated, annular space of the 46 year old, inactive, 1.03 million gallon waste storage tank. A steerable, magnetic wheel wall crawler was inserted into the annular space through small (6 in., or 150 mm, diam) holes/risers in the tank top. The crawler carried the equipment used to simultaneously collect data with up to four UT transducers and two cameras. The purpose of this inspection was to verify corrosion models and to investigate the possibility of previously unidentified corrosion sites or mechanisms. The inspections included evaluation of previously identified leak sites, thickness mapping, and crack detection scans on specified areas of the tank. No indications of reportable wall loss or pitting were detected. All thickness readings were above minimum design tank-wall thickness, although several small indications of thinning were noted. The crack detection and sizing examinations revealed five previously undetected indications, four of which were only partially through-wall. The cracks that were examined were found to be slightly longer than expected but still well within the flaw size criteria used to evaluate tank structural integrity.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006936
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... Fig. 1 Ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation (NDE) system components Fig. 2 Common methods of ultrasonic inspection: (a) pitch-catch, (b) through-transmission, (c) pulse-echo Fig. 3 Attributes of an array transducer Fig. 4 Phased array element grouping. Example...
Abstract
Of the many different nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques, ultrasonic inspection continues to be the leading nondestructive method for inspecting composite materials, because measurements can be quantitative and the typical defect geometries and orientations lend themselves to detection and characterization. This article focuses on the three common methods for ultrasonic nondestructive inspection of plastics, namely pitch-catch, through-transmission, and pulse-echo, as well as the three basic types of ultrasonic NDE scans: the A-scan, B-scan, and C-scan. The discussion includes the linear and phased array systems that are sometimes used for large-scale inspection tasks to reduce scan times, the various gating and image processing techniques, and how ultrasonic data are interpreted and presented. A brief section on future trends in ultrasonic inspection is presented at the end of the article.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001841
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... of reliability. If small cracks are induced in these devices, it is challenging at best to detect these defects unless the devices are subjected to stresses and thorough inspection prior to the final manufacturing step. As a result, incipient ultrasonic cleaning-induced cracks can remain undetected in finished...
Abstract
Ultrasonic cleaning is widely used in the production of medical devices such as guide wires and vascular implants. There are many cases, however, where cleaning frequencies have been close to the natural frequency of the device, producing resonant vibrations large enough to cause damage or premature failure. Several cases of ultrasonic cleaning-induced fatigue and corresponding failures of medical devices are examined in this review. Preventative measures to ensure that ultrasonic cleaning frequencies do not pose a threat are also provided.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006764
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
.... Although single-element transducers have been used for several decades, such inspections are increasingly commonly performed with equipment that uses a phased array. The ultrasonic NDT landscape also has been further advanced by the increased availability of modeling ( Ref 23 ). The article “Ultrasonic...
Abstract
Nondestructive testing (NDT), also known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE), includes various techniques to characterize materials without damage. This article focuses on the typical NDE techniques that may be considered when conducting a failure investigation. The article begins with discussion about the concept of the probability of detection (POD), on which the statistical reliability of crack detection is based. The coverage includes the various methods of surface inspection, including visual-examination tools, scanning technology in dimensional metrology, and the common methods of detecting surface discontinuities by magnetic-particle inspection, liquid penetrant inspection, and eddy-current testing. The major NDE methods for internal (volumetric) inspection in failure analysis also are described.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003515
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... alarms if they are sufficiently large. The POD, or any other measure of the effectiveness of a technique, will obviously depend on the criteria for acceptance or rejection of a part. For example, in the case of a pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection, a received electrical signal at a time, T , after...
Abstract
This article provides information on life assessment strategies and conceptually illustrates the interplay of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and fracture mechanics in the damage tolerant approach. It presents information on probability of detection (POD) and probability of false alarm (PFA). The article describes the damage tolerance approach to life management of cyclic-limited engine components and lists the commonly used nondestructive evaluation methods. It concludes with an illustration on the role of NDE, as quantified by POD, in fully probabilistic life management.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001079
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... Leading to Failure Testing Procedure and Results Nondestructive Evaluation Magnetic Particle and Ultrasonic Inspection Finite-Element and Fracture Mechanics Analyses Mechanical Properties Surface Examination Scanning Electron Microscopy/Fractography Condition Assessment...
Abstract
Numerous flaws were detected in a steam turbine rotor during a scheduled inspection and maintenance outage. A fracture-mechanics-based analysis of the flaws showed that the rotor could not be safely returned to service. Material, samples from the bore were analyzed to evaluate the actual mechanical properties and to determine the metallurgical cause of the observed indications. Samples were examined in a scanning electron microscope and subjected to chemical analysis and several mechanical property tests, including tensile, Charpy V-notch impact, and fracture toughness. The material was found to be a typical Cr-Mo-V steel, and it met the property requirements. No evidence of temper embrittlement was found. The analyses showed that the observed flaws were present in the original forging and attributed them to lack of ingot consolidation. A series of actions, including overboring of the rotor to remove indications close to the surface and revision of starting procedures, were implemented to extend the remaining life of the rotor and ensure its fitness for continued service.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001071
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... a critical size, the valve fractured. Finite-element models were built to determine the causal relationship between design, materials selection, material defects, fabrication, operation and use, maintenance, and inspection. A minimum wall thickness of 9.5 mm (0.375 in.) was specified by the manufacturer...
Abstract
A gray cast iron (ASTM 247 type A) gate valve in an oleum and sulfuric acid piping loop at a chemical process plant fractured catastrophically after approximately 10 years of service. The valve was a 150 mm (6 in.) bolted flange type rated to conform to ANSI B16.1 for service at 1034 kPa (150 psi) and 120 deg C (250 deg F) maximum in 93 to 99% sulfuric acid. The fracture originated at stress-corrosion cracks that occurred in a high-stress transition region at the valve body-to-flange juncture. The mechanical properties of the failed valve were below those of the manufacturer's cited specification, and the wall thickness through which the fracture occurred exceeded the minimum 9.5 mm (38 in.) thickness cited by the manufacturer The valve flange had been unbolted and rebolted to a maintenanced piping coil immediately prior to failure. It was recommended that the flange-to-valve body juncture be redesigned to reduce stress levels. A method of maintenance and inspection in concert with a criterion for life prediction for this and other valves and components in the system was also recommended.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001817
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
..., and fractography evaluations. All the test specimens were cleaned in acetone and distilled water, using ultrasonic bath. For microstructural analysis, specimens were mounted, polished, and etched in 2% Nital, and to study fracture morphology, fractured surfaces were inspected under the scanning electron microscope...
Abstract
A wire hoisting rope on a drilling rig failed during a lift, after a few cycles of operation, causing extensive damage to support structures. The failure investigation that followed included mechanical property testing and chemical, metallurgical, and finite element analysis. The rope was made from multiple strands of 1095 steel wire. Its chemical composition, ferrite-pearlite structure, and high hardness indicate that the wire is a type of extra improved plow steel (EEIPS grade). The morphologies of the fracture surfaces suggest that the wires were subjected to tensile overloading. This was confirmed by finite element analysis, which also revealed compressive contact stresses between the wires and between the rope and sheave surface. Based on the results, it was concluded that a tensile overload, due to the combined effect of a sudden load and undersized sheave, is what ultimately caused the rope to fail.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001526
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... was to determine the extent and severity of the cracking, to evaluate the feasibility of repair welding, and to establish the cause and origin of the cracking. The inspection, which included borescope and ultrasonic examinations, revealed the presence of severe circumferential cracking in both the west and east...
Abstract
In Nov. 1998, the west superheater outlet header at an electricity generating plant began to leak steam. Subsequent investigation revealed the presence of a crack that extended for 360 deg around the full circumference of the header and through the full cross-sectional thickness. The subsequent inspection of this header and the east superheater header revealed the presence of extremely severe ligament cracking. They operated at 2400 psi (16.5 MPa) and a temperature of 540deg C (1005 deg F). Both were fabricated from seamless pipe produced in accordance with ASME Specification SA-335, and the steel was Grade P22, a 2.25Cr-1Mo alloy steel. Visual and metallurgical evaluations showed the cracking in the west superheater outlet header was caused by thermal fatigue. Tube holes had served as a preferential site for thermal fatigue cracking.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001760
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... Fig. 2 Dimensions of the bolt according to DIN906 standard Fig. 3 The shape of the bolt and the hole Fig. 12 Results of SEM investigations near the cracked surface Fig. 13 The finite element model with and without the refined meshings around the hole of casting process...
Abstract
This article presents a failure analysis of an aluminum cylinder head on an automotive engine. During an endurance test, a crack initiated from the interior wall of a hole in the center of the cylinder head, then propagated through the entire thickness of the component. Metallurgical examination of the crack origin revealed that casting pores played a role in initiating the crack. Stress components, identified by finite element analysis, also played a role, particularly the stresses imposed by the bolt assembly leading to plastic strain. It was concluded that the failure can be prevented by eliminating the bolt hole, using a different type of bolt, or adjusting the fastening torque.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006823
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... are generally expected to be at a local maximum on the bottom of the drum where liquid gathers. This was found to be the case during a routine inspection at an oil refining facility, when an automated ultrasonic thickness examination revealed significant corrosion at the bottom of a 3.05 mm (0.12 in.) inside...
Abstract
This article illustrates the use of the American Petroleum Institute (API) 579-1/ASME FFS-1 fitness-for-service (FFS) code (2020) to assess the serviceability and remaining life of a corroded flare knockout drum from an oil refinery, two fractionator columns affected by corrosion under insulation in an organic sulfur environment, and an equalization tank with localized corrosion in the shell courses in a chemicals facility. In the first two cases, remaining life is assessed by determining the minimum thickness required to operate the corroded equipment. The first is based on a Level 2 FFS assessment, while the second involves a Level 3 assessment. The last case involves several FFS assessments to evaluate localized corrosion in which remaining life was assessed by determining the minimum required thickness using the concept of remaining strength factor for groove-like damage and evaluating crack-like flaws using the failure assessment diagram. Need for caution in predicting remaining life due to corrosion is also covered.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003512
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article provides an overview of the structural design process and discusses the life-limiting factors, including material defects, fabrication practices, and stress. It details the role of a failure investigator in performing nondestructive inspection. The article provides...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the structural design process and discusses the life-limiting factors, including material defects, fabrication practices, and stress. It details the role of a failure investigator in performing nondestructive inspection. The article provides information on fatigue life assessment, elevated-temperature life assessment, and fitness-for-service life assessment.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006809
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
..., should be reliably detected by modern inspection techniques (including surface inspection and ultrasonic inspection techniques). Results Results from the level 3 FFS evaluation were used to establish the envelope of permissible pressure-temperature curves shown in Fig. 10 ; for comparison...
Abstract
A detailed fracture mechanics evaluation is the most accurate and reliable prediction of process equipment susceptibility to brittle fracture. This article provides an overview and discussion on brittle fracture. The discussion covers the reasons to evaluate brittle fracture, provides a brief summary of historical failures that were found to be a result of brittle fracture, and describes key components that drive susceptibility to a brittle fracture failure, namely stress, material toughness, and cracklike defect. It also presents industry codes and standards that assess susceptibility to brittle fracture. Additionally, a series of case study examples are presented that demonstrate assessment procedures used to mitigate the risk of brittle fracture in process equipment.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006802
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... on failure and life assessment of components, structural design philosophies, the role of the failure analyst in life assessment, and the role of nondestructive inspection. They also cover fatigue life assessment, elevated-temperature life assessment, fitness-for-service life assessment, brittle fracture...
Abstract
Life assessment of structural components is used to avoid catastrophic failures and to maintain safe and reliable functioning of equipment. The failure investigator's input is essential for the meaningful life assessment of structural components. This article provides an overview of the structural design process, the failure analysis process, the failure investigator's role, and how failure analysis of structural components integrates into the determination of remaining life, fitness-for-service, and other life assessment concerns. The topics discussed include industry perspectives on failure and life assessment of components, structural design philosophies, the role of the failure analyst in life assessment, and the role of nondestructive inspection. They also cover fatigue life assessment, elevated-temperature life assessment, fitness-for-service life assessment, brittle fracture assessments, corrosion assessments, and blast, fire, and heat damage assessments.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006838
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... MANUFACTURING (AM) refers to a group of free-form fabrication technologies that incrementally build up a solid part by computer-controlled deposition of material from a digital solid model. The technology is an outgrowth and broadening of rapid prototyping methods that were developed in the 1980s to accelerate...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of metal additive manufacturing (AM) processes and describes sources of failures in metal AM parts. It focuses on metal AM product failures and potential solutions related to design considerations, metallurgical characteristics, production considerations, and quality assurance. The emphasis is on the design and metallurgical aspects for the two main types of metal AM processes: powder-bed fusion (PBF) and directed-energy deposition (DED). The article also describes the processes involved in binder jet sintering, provides information on the design and fabrication sources of failure, addresses the key factors in production and quality control, and explains failure analysis of AM parts.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006819
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... properly designed, fitness-for-service methods can be used to determine the current extent of fatigue damage, to realistically estimate remaining fatigue life, and to establish appropriate inspection intervals. Moreover, inspection (nondestructive examination) is a critical aspect of managing the risk...
Abstract
This article offers an overview of fatigue fundamentals, common fatigue terminology, and examples of damage morphology. It presents a summary of relevant engineering mechanics, cyclic plasticity principles, and perspective on the modern design by analysis (DBA) techniques. The article reviews fatigue assessment methods incorporated in international design and post construction codes and standards, with special emphasis on evaluating welds. Specifically, the stress-life approach, the strain-life approach, and the fracture mechanics (crack growth) approach are described. An overview of high-cycle welded fatigue methods, cycle-counting techniques, and a discussion on ratcheting are also offered. A historical synopsis of fatigue technology advancements and commentary on component design and fabrication strategies to mitigate fatigue damage and improve damage tolerance are provided. Finally, the article presents practical fatigue assessment case studies of in-service equipment (pressure vessels) that employ DBA methods.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006822
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... physical measurement, ultrasonic inspection, or noncontact measurement such as laser scanning. Visual examination of the large-scale leak or rupture features as well as detailed visual fractographic examination, with magnification if possible. Often this step is repeated after some pipe sections...
Abstract
This article discusses the failure analysis of several steel transmission pipeline failures, describes the causes and characteristics of specific pipeline failure modes, and introduces pipeline failure prevention and integrity management practices and methodologies. In addition, it covers the use of transmission pipeline in North America, discusses the procedures in pipeline failure analysis investigation, and provides a brief background on the most commonly observed pipeline flaws and degradation mechanisms. A case study related to hydrogen cracking and a hard spot is also presented.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006807
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... temperatures. The article describes the stages of the creep curve, discusses processes involved in the extrapolation of creep data, and summarizes notable creep constitutive models and continuum damage mechanics models. It demonstrates the effects of stress relaxation and redistribution on the remaining life...
Abstract
This article provides some new developments in elevated-temperature and life assessments. It is aimed at providing an overview of the damage mechanisms of concern, with a focus on creep, and the methodologies for design and in-service assessment of components operating at elevated temperatures. The article describes the stages of the creep curve, discusses processes involved in the extrapolation of creep data, and summarizes notable creep constitutive models and continuum damage mechanics models. It demonstrates the effects of stress relaxation and redistribution on the remaining life and discusses the Monkman-Grant relationship and multiaxiality. The article further provides information on high-temperature metallurgical changes and high-temperature hydrogen attack and the steps involved in the remaining-life prediction of high-temperature components. It presents case studies on heater tube creep testing and remaining-life assessment, and pressure vessel time-dependent stress analysis showing the effect of stress relaxation at hot spots.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003516
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... components eddy current, ultrasonic, x-ray, dye-penetrant, and visual inspections are regularly accomplished. Fatigue Crack Growth Variables The fundamental variables involved in any life assessment are those that describe the effects and interaction of material behavior, geometry, and stress history...
Abstract
This article discusses the fundamental variables involved in fatigue-life assessment, which describe the effects and interaction of material behavior, geometry, and stress history on the life of a component. It compares the safe-life approach with the damage-tolerance approach, which employs the stress-life method of fatigue life assessment. The article examines the behavior of three different metallic materials used in the design and manufacture of structural components: steel, aluminum, and titanium. It also reviews the effects of retardation and spectrum load on component life. The article concludes with case studies of fatigue life assessment from the aerospace industry.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001753
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
...-ionized water at a temperature of 95 °C. The samples were left in the bath while being ultrasonically agitated for 30 min, with regular visual progress inspections throughout the process. The fracture surfaces (samples A–D), along with the polished metallographic mounts, were analyzed in the scanning...
Abstract
A failure analysis investigation was conducted on a fractured aluminum tailwheel fork which failed moments after the landing of a privately owned, 1955 twin-engine airplane. Nondestructive evaluation via dye-penetrant inspection revealed no discernible surface cracks. The chemical composition of the sand-cast component was identified via optical emission spectroscopy and is comparable to an aluminum sand-cast alloy, AA 712.0. Metallographic evaluation via optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy revealed a high degree of porosity in the microstructure as well as the presence of deleterious intermetallic compounds within interdendritic regions. Macrohardness testing produced hardness values which are noticeably higher than standard hardness values for 712.0. The primary fracture surfaces indicate evidence of mixed-mode fracture, via intergranular cracking, cleaved intermetallic particles, and dimpled cellular regions in the matrix. The secondary fracture surface demonstrates similar features of intergranular fracture.
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