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Book Chapter
Uniform Corrosion of a Copper Pipe Coupling
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.bldgs.c0091292
EISBN: 978-1-62708-219-8
... the pipe was buried in noncorrosive sandy soil, it was found to incur stray currents at 2 Vdc in relation to a Cu/CuSO4 half cell. Recommendations included eliminating, moving, or shielding the source of stray current. Pipe couplings Stray current corrosion Water treatment systems Copper pipe...
Abstract
A 25 mm (1 in.) copper coupling had been uniformly degraded around most of the circumference of the bell and partially on the spigot end. One penetration finally occurred through the thinned area on the spigot end of the pipe. Investigation supported the conclusion that although the pipe was buried in noncorrosive sandy soil, it was found to incur stray currents at 2 Vdc in relation to a Cu/CuSO4 half cell. Recommendations included eliminating, moving, or shielding the source of stray current.
Book Chapter
Corrosion Failure of Bottom Plates of an Aboveground Storage Tank
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001765
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
..., for example, pH; resistivity; redox potential; and moisture, sulfides, sulfates, and chlorides content. Stray direct currents (DC) or induced alternating current (AC) sources can accelerate soil corrosion. Background of the Failure The bottom plates of the potable water tank failed after approximately...
Abstract
This paper describes the investigation of a corrosion failure of bottom plates on an aboveground tank used for the storage of potable water. The tank was internally inspected for the first time after six years of service. Paint blisters and rust spots were observed on the bottom plates and first to third course shell plates. Sand blasting and repainting of the bottom plates and first course shell plates was to be used as a remedial measure. However, during the sand blasting, holes and deep pitting were observed on the bottom plates. On-site visual inspection, magnetic flux leakage (MFL) inspection, ultrasonic testing (UT), and evaluation of the external cathodic protection (CP) system were used in the failure analysis. The corrosion products were analyzed using energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX). The failure is attributed to the ingress of water and its impoundment under the tank bottom along the periphery inside the ring wall and failure of water side epoxy coating. Various measures to prevent such failures in the future are recommended.
Book Chapter
A Survey of the Causes of Failure of Rolling Bearings
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.mech.c9001485
EISBN: 978-1-62708-225-9
... liquids, and stray electric currents. Most common modes of failure include flaking or pitting (fatigue), cracks or fractures, creep, smearing, wear, softening, indentation, fluting, and corrosion. The modes of failure are illustrated with examples from practice. Roller bearings Rolling-bearing...
Abstract
Factors which may lead to premature roller bearing failure in service include incorrect fitting, excessive pre-load during installation, insufficient or unsuitable lubrication, over-load, impact load vibration, excessive temperature, contamination by abrasive matter, ingress of harmful liquids, and stray electric currents. Most common modes of failure include flaking or pitting (fatigue), cracks or fractures, creep, smearing, wear, softening, indentation, fluting, and corrosion. The modes of failure are illustrated with examples from practice.
Book Chapter
Analysis of Pitting and MIC of Stainless Steel Piping
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.bldgs.c0091201
EISBN: 978-1-62708-219-8
... months of start-up, leaks were discovered. On-Site Examination A series of tests were performed on site to eliminate stray currents as a possible cause of failure in the piping system. The piping system was inspected for possible sources of ac or dc current flow. An external battery was used...
Abstract
Type 316L (UNS S31603) austenitic stainless steel piping was installed as part of a storm-sewer treatment collection system in a manufacturing facility. Within six months of start-up, leaks were discovered. Investigation (on-site current flow testing, visual inspection, water tests, and 5x/10x images etched in ASTM 89 reagent) supported the conclusion that the pitting in the austenitic stainless steel pipe was believed to be caused by damage to the passive layer brought about by a combination of MIC, high chloride levels, and high total dissolved solids. The low-flow and stagnant conditions present in the piping were primary contributors to the pit progression. Recommendations included replacing the pipe. Several alloys, nonmetallic materials, and lining materials were proposed for coupon testing to determine which would operate best in an environment with high levels of aerobic bacteria.
Book Chapter
Analysis and Prevention of Corrosion-Related Failures
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003549
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... is aggressive, corrosion-control methods need to be developed and initiated. To evaluate corrosion-exposure conditions for metallic piping networks, field conditions such as soil type, soil pH, stray current effects, and electrical continuity require quantification by field investigation. Based...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the electrochemical nature of corrosion and analyzes corrosion-related failures. It describes corrosion failure analysis and discusses corrective and preventive approaches to mitigate corrosion-related failures of metals. These include: change in the environment; change in the alloy or heat treatment; change in design; use of galvanic protection; use of inhibitors; use of nonmetallic coatings and liners; application of metallic coatings; use of surface treatments, thermal spray, or other surface modifications; corrosion monitoring; and preventive maintenance.
Book Chapter
Forms of Corrosion
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003548
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... to the specific conditions of environmental or electrochemical attack. For example, uniform thinning can be attributed to various conditions such as: Atmospheric corrosion Aqueous corrosion Galvanic corrosion Stray-current corrosion (which is similar to galvanic corrosion, but does not rely...
Abstract
This article addresses the forms of corrosion that contribute directly to the failure of metal parts or that render them susceptible to failure by some other mechanism. It describes the mechanisms of corrosive attack for specific forms of corrosion such as galvanic corrosion, uniform corrosion, pitting and crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, and velocity-affected corrosion. The article contains a table that lists combinations of alloys and environments subjected to selective leaching and the elements removed by leaching.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006783
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... can be classified further according to the specific conditions of environmental or electrochemical attack. For example, uniform thinning can be attributed to various conditions, such as: Atmospheric corrosion Aqueous corrosion Galvanic corrosion Stray-current corrosion (which is similar...
Abstract
Corrosion is the electrochemical reaction of a material and its environment. This article addresses those forms of corrosion that contribute directly to the failure of metal parts or that render them susceptible to failure by some other mechanism. Various forms of corrosion covered are galvanic corrosion, uniform corrosion, pitting, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, selective leaching, and velocity-affected corrosion. In particular, mechanisms of corrosive attack for specific forms of corrosion, as well as evaluation and factors contributing to these forms, are described. These reviews of corrosion forms and mechanisms are intended to assist the reader in developing an understanding of the underlying principles of corrosion; acquiring such an understanding is the first step in recognizing and analyzing corrosion-related failures and in formulating preventive measures.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001810
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... of debris Potential sources of electrical current passing through the bearing Potential sources of water and other corrosive fluids Load spectrum and sources of potential-unknown loads Misalignment of deflections that influence load distribution within the bearing system Not all...
Abstract
Rolling-element bearings use rolling elements interposed between two raceways, and relative motion is permitted by the rotation of these elements. This article presents an overview of bearing materials, bearing-load ratings, and an examination of failed bearings. Rolling-element bearings are designed on the principle of rolling contact rather than sliding contact; frictional effects, although low, are not negligible, and lubrication is essential. The article lists the typical characteristics and causes of several types of failures. It describes failure by wear, failure by fretting, failure by corrosion, failure by plastic flow, failure by rolling-contact fatigue, and failure by damage. The article discusses the effects of fabrication practices, heat treatment and hardness of bearing components, and lubrication of rolling-element bearings with a few examples.
Book Chapter
Failures of Pipelines
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006822
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... Operating history Past issues or leaks Any repair/remediation Any previous related investigations Also to be considered are potential factors that act external to the pipeline, such as soil type and movement, stray current from other buried structures and high-tension power lines, third-party...
Abstract
This article discusses the failure analysis of several steel transmission pipeline failures, describes the causes and characteristics of specific pipeline failure modes, and introduces pipeline failure prevention and integrity management practices and methodologies. In addition, it covers the use of transmission pipeline in North America, discusses the procedures in pipeline failure analysis investigation, and provides a brief background on the most commonly observed pipeline flaws and degradation mechanisms. A case study related to hydrogen cracking and a hard spot is also presented.
Book Chapter
Electrical Testing and Characterization of Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006913
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
..., on a preliminary basis, between related materials in terms of their resistance to the action of a high-voltage, low-current arc near the insulation surface. Due to localized thermal and chemical decomposition and corrosion, the arcing will continue to form a conducting path or to allow the material to become...
Abstract
This article addresses electrical testing and characterization of plastics and presents a number of techniques for evaluating the electrical properties of insulating materials, with a special focus on plastics, accompanied by a list of the electrical properties of different types of plastics. It provides the reader with sufficient information to select the appropriate electrical test(s) for a specific application. The tests covered in this article are widely used in industry to determine the electrical properties of insulating materials, particularly plastics. The article lists and defines terms used in connection with testing and specification of plastics for electrical applications.
Book Chapter
Failures of Rolling-Element Bearings and Their Prevention
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006834
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... bearings are also explained. Finally, the article discusses in detail the characteristics and prevention of the various types of failures of REBs: wear, fretting, corrosion, plastic flow, rolling-contact fatigue, and damage. The article includes an Appendix, which lists REB-related abbreviations...
Abstract
This article is dedicated to the fields of mechanical engineering and machine design. It also intends to give a nonexhaustive view of the preventive side of the failure analysis of rolling-element bearings (REBs) and of some of the developments in terms of materials and surface engineering. The article presents the nomenclature, numbering systems, and worldwide market of REBs as well as provides description of REBs as high-tech machine components. It discusses heat treatments, performance, and properties of bearing materials. The processes involved in the examination of failed bearings are also explained. Finally, the article discusses in detail the characteristics and prevention of the various types of failures of REBs: wear, fretting, corrosion, plastic flow, rolling-contact fatigue, and damage. The article includes an Appendix, which lists REB-related abbreviations, association websites, and ISO standards.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001817
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... components. Corrosion General corrosion resulting in uniform wall thinning causes considerable damage to heat-exchanger tubes. However, the principal corrosion damage in heat exchangers is usually from localized attack. Stray electrical currents may also contribute to significant corrosion of heat...
Abstract
This article describes the characteristics of tubing of heat exchangers with respect to general corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, selective leaching, and oxygen-cell attack, with examples. It illustrates the examination of failed parts of heat exchangers by using sample selection, visual examination, microscopic examination, chemical analysis, and mechanical tests. The article explains corrosion fatigue of tubing of heat exchangers caused by aggressive environment and cyclic stress. It also discusses the effects of design, welding practices, and elevated temperatures on the failures of heat exchangers.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006813
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... in the wall thickness to minimize the potential of a failure. However, the principal corrosion damage in heat exchangers is usually from localized attack. Stray electrical currents may also contribute to significant corrosion of heat exchangers. Localized corrosive attack can occur as pitting, impingement...
Abstract
Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer thermal energy between two or more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid, or between a solid particulate and a fluid at different temperatures. This article first addresses the causes of failures in heat exchangers. It then provides a description of heat-transfer surface area, discussing the design of the tubular heat exchanger. Next, the article discusses the processes involved in the examination of failed parts. Finally, it describes the most important types of corrosion, including uniform, galvanic, pitting, stress, and erosion corrosion.
Book Chapter
Metallurgical Investigation of a Prematurely Failed Roller Bearing Used in the Support and Tilting System of a Steel Making Converter Used in an Integrated Steel Plant
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001645
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
... or multiple interactions among several factors. The important factors that contribute to premature service failure include improper fitting, inadequate lubrication, overloading, vibration, impact loading, debris ingress, contamination, high operating temperatures, and stray electrical fields. Bearings subject...
Abstract
An extensive metallurgical investigation was carried out on samples of a failed roller bearing from the support and tilting system of a basic oxygen furnace converter used in the steel melting shop of an integrated steel plant. The converter bearing was fabricated from low-carbon, carburizing grade steel and had failed in service within a year of fitting to a repaired shaft. Microscopic observations of both the broken roller and inner-race samples revealed subsurface cracking and preponderance of brittle oxide and other macroinclusions. Electron probe microanalysis studies confirmed that the brittle oxides that formed stringers were alumina, and the other macroinclusions were complex silicates. Both the alumina and silicate inclusions were deleterious to contact-fatigue properties. Microstructurally, the carburized regions of the broken roller and of inner-race samples contained high-carbon tempered martensite. Microhardness measurements revealed that. Although the core hardness of the roller and the inner-race samples were similar, the surface hardness of the roller was approximately 8.5 HRC units harder than that of the inner-race. SEM observations of the roller fracture surface revealed striations indicative of fatigue, and EDS analyses corroborated a high incidence of silicate inclusions at crack sites. The study suggests that the failure of the bearing occurred because the hardness difference between the roller bearing and the inner-race surfaces resulted in wear of the inner-race. The wear led to shaft misalignment and play during service. The misalignment, coupled with the presence of inclusions, caused fatigue failure of the roller bearing.
Book Chapter
High-Temperature Degradation of a Gas Turbine Transition Duct
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c0091754
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... pressures of the gases within the duct, combined with the high temperatures, facilitated nitrogen pickup. No recommendations were made. Intergranular precipitation Oxidation Spalling Inconel 317 UNS N06617 High-temperature corrosion and oxidation The presence of carbides and carbonitrides...
Abstract
A transition duct was part of a 100-MW power-generation gas turbine. The duct was fabricated from several panels of a modified nickel alloy, IN-617. After six years of operation, two such ducts failed during the next two years, causing outages. Failure was in the form of a total collapse of the duct. Carbides and carbonitrides were found in all of the transitions examined. Investigation supported the conclusion that failure was caused by oxidation, oxide penetration, and oxide spallation which caused thinning of the duct wall. It was felt that the high oxygen and nitrogen partial pressures of the gases within the duct, combined with the high temperatures, facilitated nitrogen pickup. No recommendations were made.
Book Chapter
Graphitic Corrosion of a Gray Iron Water-Main Pipe Resulting in a Corroded-Through Hole
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.bldgs.c0047335
EISBN: 978-1-62708-219-8
... of cast iron pipe. Chemical analyses of the porous region had a substantial increase in carbon, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur. The porous appearance and the composition of the soft porous residue confirmed graphitic corrosion. The selective leaching of iron leaves a residue rich in carbon, silicon...
Abstract
A section of cast iron water main pipe contained a hole approximately 6.4 x 3.8 cm (2.5 x 1.5 in.). The pipe was laid in clay type soil. Examination revealed severe pitting around the hole and at the opposite side of the outside diam. A macroscopic examination of a pipe section at the hole area showed that the porosity extended a considerable distance into the pipe wall. Metallographic examination revealed a graphite structure distribution expected in centrifugally cast iron with a hypoeutectic carbon equivalent. Chemical analyses of a nonporous sample had a composition typical of cast iron pipe. Chemical analyses of the porous region had a substantial increase in carbon, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur. The porous appearance and the composition of the soft porous residue confirmed graphitic corrosion. The selective leaching of iron leaves a residue rich in carbon, silicon, and phosphorus. The high sulfur content is attributed to ferrous sulfide from a sulfate reducing bacteria frequently associated with clay soils. Reinforced coal tar protective coating was recommended.
Book Chapter
Failure of a Buried Type 304L Stainless Steel Drain Line by Galvanic Attack
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0046535
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... in the backfill revealed the site of failure. Analysis (visual inspection, electrical conductivity, and soil analysis) supported the conclusions that the failure had resulted from galvanic corrosion at a point where the corrosivity of the soil was substantially greater than the average, resulting in a voltage...
Abstract
One of five underground drain lines intended to carry a highly acidic effluent from a chemical-processing plant to distant holding tanks failed in just a few months. Each line was made of 304L stainless steel pipe 73 mm (2 in.) in diam with a 5 mm (0.203 in.) wall thickness. Lengths of pipe were joined by shielded metal arc welding. Soundness of the welded joints was determined by water back-pressure testing after several lengths of pipe had been installed and joined. Before completion of the pipeline, a pressure drop was observed during back-pressure testing. An extreme depression in the backfill revealed the site of failure. Analysis (visual inspection, electrical conductivity, and soil analysis) supported the conclusions that the failure had resulted from galvanic corrosion at a point where the corrosivity of the soil was substantially greater than the average, resulting in a voltage decrease near the point of failure of about 1.3 to 1.7 V. Recommendations included that the pipelines be asphalt coated and enclosed in a concrete trough with a concrete cover. Also, magnesium anodes, connected electrically to each line, should be installed at periodic intervals along their entire length to provide cathodic protection.
Book Chapter
Degradation of Thermal Barrier Coated Superalloy Component During Service
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001829
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... excessive oxidation and corrosion of high-strength nickeland cobalt-base superalloys being used for turbine blades and vanes [ 1 , 2 ]. The first-stage vanes are subjected to the highest gas velocity and temperature in the engine. Since the gas entering the first-stage vane can be above the melting...
Abstract
An investigation was conducted to better understand the time-dependent degradation of thermal barrier coated superalloy components in gas turbines. First-stage vanes are normally subjected to the highest gas velocities and temperatures during operation, and were thus the focus of the study. The samples that were analyzed had been operating at 1350 °C in a gas turbine at a combined-cycle generating plant. They were regenerated once, then used for different lengths of time. The investigation included chemical analysis, scanning electron microscopy, SEM/energy dispersive spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction. It was shown that degradation is driven by chemical and mechanical differences, oxide growth, depletion, and recrystallization, the combined effect of which results in exfoliation, spallation, and mechanical thinning.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of Fatigue Fracture on the Outer Ring of a Cylindrical Roller Bearing in an Air Blower Motor
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001831
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... of corrosion. Meanwhile, some black-colored substances adhering to the contact surface too are observed, Fig. 5d . According to the EDS results ( Fig. 5f ), besides the elements of the matrix material, molybdenum, Mo, and sulfur, S, are also present. In other words, such substances were the residua...
Abstract
An air blower in an electric power plant failed unexpectedly when a roller bearing in the drive motor fractured along its outer ring. Both rings, as well as the 18 rolling elements, were made from GCr15 bearing steel. The bearing also included a machined brass (MA/C3) cage and was packed with molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2 ) lithium grease. Metallurgical structures and chemical compositions of the bearing’s matrix materials were inspected using a microscope and photoelectric direct reading spectrometer. SEM/EDS was used to examine the local morphology and composition of fracture and contact surfaces. Chemical and thermal properties of the bearing grease were also examined. The investigation revealed that the failure was caused by wear due to dry friction and impact, both of which worsened as a result of high-temperature degradation of the bearing grease. Fatigue cracks initiated in the corners of the outer ring and grew large enough for a fracture to occur.