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Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003545
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article reviews the applied aspects of creep and stress-rupture failures. It discusses the microstructural changes and bulk mechanical behavior of classical and nonclassical creep behavior. The article provides a description of microstructural changes and damage from creep...
Abstract
This article reviews the applied aspects of creep and stress-rupture failures. It discusses the microstructural changes and bulk mechanical behavior of classical and nonclassical creep behavior. The article provides a description of microstructural changes and damage from creep deformation, including stress-rupture fractures. It also describes metallurgical instabilities, such as aging and carbide reactions, and evaluates the complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction. The article concludes with a discussion on thermal fatigue and creep fatigue failures.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0060154
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... Abstract One of the coils in the radiant section of a primary reformer furnace used in an ammonia plant was found leaking. The bottom of one of seven outlet headers (made of ASME SA-452, grade TP316H, stainless steel) was revealed during examination to be ruptured. It was revealed...
Abstract
One of the coils in the radiant section of a primary reformer furnace used in an ammonia plant was found leaking. The bottom of one of seven outlet headers (made of ASME SA-452, grade TP316H, stainless steel) was revealed during examination to be ruptured. It was revealed by metallurgical examination that it had failed as a result of intergranular fissuring and oxidation (creep rupture). The ruptured area revealed that the header had failed by conventional long-time creep rupture as a result of exposure to operating temperatures probably between 900 and 955 deg C. Three samples from different sections (ruptured area, slightly bulged but nonruptured area and visually sound metal) were inspected. The presence of pinhead-size intergranular fissures throughout the cross sections of the latter two samples was observed. An ultrasonic attenuation method was employed to investigate the remaining headers. All headers were revealed by ultrasonic readings to be in an advanced stage of creep rupture and no areas were found to be fissured to a degree that they needed immediate replacement. As a conclusion, the furnace was deemed serviceable and it was established that in the absence of local hot spots, the headers would survive for a reasonable period of time.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0048289
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... Abstract The center portions of two adjacent low-carbon steel boiler tubes (made to ASME SA-192 specifications) ruptured during a start-up period after seven months in service. It was indicated by reports that there had been sufficient water in the boiler two hours before start-up...
Abstract
The center portions of two adjacent low-carbon steel boiler tubes (made to ASME SA-192 specifications) ruptured during a start-up period after seven months in service. It was indicated by reports that there had been sufficient water in the boiler two hours before start-up. The microstructure near the rupture edge was revealed by metallographic examination to consist of ferrite and acicular martensite or bainite. The microstructure and the observed lack of cold work indicated a temperature above the transformation temperature of 727 deg C had been reached. Swelling of the tubes was disclosed by the wall thickness and OD of the tubing. The tubes were concluded to have failed due to rapid overheating.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0048294
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... Abstract The tubes of a stationary industrial boiler, 64 mm in diam and made of 1.25Cr-0.5Mo steel (ASME SA-213, grade T-11) failed by two different types of rupture. Noticeable swelling of the tubes in the area of rupture was revealed by visual examination. The tubes with slight longitudinal...
Abstract
The tubes of a stationary industrial boiler, 64 mm in diam and made of 1.25Cr-0.5Mo steel (ASME SA-213, grade T-11) failed by two different types of rupture. Noticeable swelling of the tubes in the area of rupture was revealed by visual examination. The tubes with slight longitudinal splits were interpreted to have failed by stress rupture resulting from prolonged overheating at 540 to 650 deg C as the microstructure exhibited extensive spheroidization and coalescence of carbides. The larger ruptures were tensile failures that resulted from rapid overheating to 815 to 870 deg C as a completely martensitic structure was revealed at the edges of the ruptures in these tubes because of rapid quenching by escaping fluid. The prolonged-overheating failures were concluded to have been the primary ruptures and that local loss of circulation had caused rapid overheating in adjacent tubes. Poor boiler circulation and high furnace temperatures were believed to have caused the prolonged overheating.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001726
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... Abstract A carbon steel furnace tube which should have given good service for ten years ruptured after one year. The tube showed obvious swelling at the point of rupture, and the bulged surface of the tube was oxidized at a temperature far above the design temperature. There was little...
Abstract
A carbon steel furnace tube which should have given good service for ten years ruptured after one year. The tube showed obvious swelling at the point of rupture, and the bulged surface of the tube was oxidized at a temperature far above the design temperature. There was little or no loss in wall thickness due to corrosion or scaling, and the tube wall was thinned to a knife edge at the rupture. Metallographic examination showed the condition of the material was satisfactory. The failure was mechanical in nature, typical of short time creep rupture. The localized oxidation indicated improper furnace operation or blockage of the tube. The furnace was checked and found to have a burner tip out of order. After the tip was repaired, localized overheating was minimized and further premature failures did not occur.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.matlhand.c9001453
EISBN: 978-1-62708-224-2
... Abstract While a chain sling was being used to lift a casting one of the links ruptured. The sling, reputed to be of the electrically-welded steel type, was at least eight years old and had been overhauled several times during its working life. Examination showed the links were scarf-welded...
Abstract
While a chain sling was being used to lift a casting one of the links ruptured. The sling, reputed to be of the electrically-welded steel type, was at least eight years old and had been overhauled several times during its working life. Examination showed the links were scarf-welded. Furthermore, the welds were at the ends and not at the sides as is usual in the case of electrically-welded chains. A transverse section from one side of a link was examined microscopically. This showed the material to be wrought-iron of satisfactory quality. It was concluded this chain sling had been made from wrought-iron, forge welded in the usual manner, and that it was not electrically-welded steel as had been supposed. Failure was attributed to embrittlement in service of the surface material of the links. If it had been realized that the sling was made from wrought-iron then it would doubtless have been subjected to periodical annealing in accordance with Statutory requirements, which would have restored the ductility of the surface material.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.chem.c0048772
EISBN: 978-1-62708-220-4
... Abstract A return bend (made from ASTM A213, grade T11, ferritic steel) from a triolefin-unit heater ruptured after two years in service. The unit operated at 2410 kPa, with a hydrocarbon feed stream (85% propylene) entering at 260 to 290 deg C and leaving at 425 to 480 deg C. The fracture...
Abstract
A return bend (made from ASTM A213, grade T11, ferritic steel) from a triolefin-unit heater ruptured after two years in service. The unit operated at 2410 kPa, with a hydrocarbon feed stream (85% propylene) entering at 260 to 290 deg C and leaving at 425 to 480 deg C. The fracture was found to terminate at the welds that joined the bend to the pipeline. A high concentration of both small and large inclusions was exhibited by the metallographic examination of the steel near the fracture. Branched cracks similar to those produced by stress corrosion of steel were observed in a section through the fireside edge of the fracture surface. Scale was observed over most of the crack path which acted as a stress raiser. The effect of the oxide was magnified during thermal cycles because of differential thermal expansion, with the steel having a greater expansion coefficient than the scale. It was recommended that material that is intended for critical applications where failure cannot be tolerated should be non-destructively examined.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001050
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... Abstract A steam-pressurized Yankee dryer shell ruptured during normal operation. Cracking had occurred around much of the circumference at the drive end of the shell, which measured 3.7 m (12 ft) in diameter by 3.4 m (11 ft) long with a head bolted to each end. The crack initiated at a 90 deg...
Abstract
A steam-pressurized Yankee dryer shell ruptured during normal operation. Cracking had occurred around much of the circumference at the drive end of the shell, which measured 3.7 m (12 ft) in diameter by 3.4 m (11 ft) long with a head bolted to each end. The crack initiated at a 90 deg corner in contact with the edge of the head. The material was a hardened gray cast iron containing 2.8% Ni and 1.2% Mo. Based on the results of visual, nondestructive, metallographic, and chemical analyses, it was concluded that failure occurred after corrosion fatigue cracking had weakened the shell. An ultrasonic examination of all Yankee dryers of the same type was recommended to look for cracking at the edge of the shell. Modification of the head-to-shell joint was recommended as well.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c0048299
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... Abstract Pendant-style reheater, constructed of ASME SA-213, grade T-11, steel ruptured. A set of four tubes, specified to be 64 mm OD x 3.4 mm minimum wall thickness was examined. A small quantity of loose debris was removed from the inside of one of the tubes. The major constituent...
Abstract
Pendant-style reheater, constructed of ASME SA-213, grade T-11, steel ruptured. A set of four tubes, specified to be 64 mm OD x 3.4 mm minimum wall thickness was examined. A small quantity of loose debris was removed from the inside of one of the tubes. The major constituent was revealed by EDS analysis of the debris to be iron with traces of phosphorus, manganese, sodium, calcium, copper, zinc, potassium, silicon, chromium, and molybdenum. Thus the debris was interpreted to be the scale from ID of the tube with boiler feedwater chemicals from the attemperation spray. The likely cause of failure was concluded to be exfoliation of the scale from the ID surface of the tube. Creep failures were interpreted to be caused by localized temperatures higher than the maximum service temperature. Replacement of the affected tubes was recommended. Inspection of the tubes by radiography to find the circuits with the greatest accumulation of debris and replacing them as necessary was recommended on an annual basis.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c0048309
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... Abstract A 75 mm OD x 7.4 mm wall thickness carbon steel boiler tube ruptured. A substantial degree of corrosion on the water-side surface leaving a rough area in the immediate vicinity of the rupture was revealed by visual examination. Decarburization and extensive discontinuous intergranular...
Abstract
A 75 mm OD x 7.4 mm wall thickness carbon steel boiler tube ruptured. A substantial degree of corrosion on the water-side surface leaving a rough area in the immediate vicinity of the rupture was revealed by visual examination. Decarburization and extensive discontinuous intergranular cracking was revealed by microscopic examination of a cross section through the tube wall at the fracture. It was concluded that the rupture occurred because of hydrogen damage involving the formation of methane by the reaction of dissolved hydrogen with carbon in the steel. Hydrogen was produced by the chemical reaction that corroded the internal tube surface. Steel embrittled by hydrogen can be restored only if grain boundary cracking or decarburization had not occurred but since the material embrittled in this manner, its replacement was recommended.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001000
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... Abstract Rupture occurred at a bend in a superheated steam transfer line between a header and a desuperheater of a boiler producing 230 t/h of steam at 540 deg C and 118 kPa. The boiler had operated for 77,000 h. Rupture occurred along the outer bend radius of the 168 mm diam tube, this being...
Abstract
Rupture occurred at a bend in a superheated steam transfer line between a header and a desuperheater of a boiler producing 230 t/h of steam at 540 deg C and 118 kPa. The boiler had operated for 77,000 h. Rupture occurred along the outer bend radius of the 168 mm diam tube, this being of 1 Cr, 0.5 Mo steel with a wall thickness of 14 mm. The design temperature of this tube was 490 deg C, but there is evidence that it was operating at a temperature much above 500 deg C. Metallographic analysis disclosed an advanced stage of creep damage accumulation in the form of local cracks, microcracks, and aligned damage centers which showed up as voids upon repeated polish-etch cycles. Because of the local nature of creep damage that can occur, any inspection that involves in situ metallography must be conducted at exactly the right or critical position or the presence of damage may not be detected.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001479
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... Abstract Several ruptures took place in the front wall tubes of a water tube boiler. Some rupture samples showed ductile failure while others showed brittle failure. Specimens taken from the rupture where a thick edge had been produced, i.e., with little evidence of prior plastic deformation...
Abstract
Several ruptures took place in the front wall tubes of a water tube boiler. Some rupture samples showed ductile failure while others showed brittle failure. Specimens taken from the rupture where a thick edge had been produced, i.e., with little evidence of prior plastic deformation, showed a coarse microstructure indicative of gross overheating. The examination indicated that failure in the main resulted from gross overheating arising from water starvation as could have been due to a number of causes. The ruptures in some tubes were of the type commonly found in overheated tubes, the material being drawn out to a feather edge at the time of rupture. Other ruptures in the same and other tubes were of a more brittle type, this being associated with penetration of material by molten copper derived from scale.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001318
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... Abstract Failure of three C22000 commercial bronze rupture discs was caused by mercury embrittlement. The discs were part of flammable gas cylinder safety devices designed to fail in a ductile mode when cylinders experience higher than design pressures. The subject discs failed prematurely...
Abstract
Failure of three C22000 commercial bronze rupture discs was caused by mercury embrittlement. The discs were part of flammable gas cylinder safety devices designed to fail in a ductile mode when cylinders experience higher than design pressures. The subject discs failed prematurely below design pressure in a brittle manner. Fractographic examination using SEM indicated that failure occurred intergranularly from the cylinder side. EDS analysis indicated the presence of mercury on the fracture surface and mercury was also detected using scanning auger microprobe (SAM) analysis. The mercury was accidentally introduced into the cylinders during a gas-blending operation through a contaminated blending manifold. Replacement of the contaminated manifold was recommended along with discontinued use of mercury manometers, the original source of mercury contamination.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001758
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... Abstract This article describes the visual, fractographic, and metallographic evidence typically encountered when analyzing stress rupture of turbine airfoils. Stress-rupture fractures are generally heavily oxidized, tend to be rough in texture, and are primarily intergranular...
Abstract
This article describes the visual, fractographic, and metallographic evidence typically encountered when analyzing stress rupture of turbine airfoils. Stress-rupture fractures are generally heavily oxidized, tend to be rough in texture, and are primarily intergranular and/or interdendritic in appearance compared to smoother, transgranular fatigue type fractures. Often, gross plastic yielding is visible on a macroscopic scale. Commonly observed microstructural characteristics include creep voiding along grain boundaries and/or interdendritic regions. Internal voids can also nucleate at carbides and other microconstituents, especially in single crystal castings that do not possess grain boundaries.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001814
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... Abstract A pressure vessel failed causing an external fire on a nine-story coke gasifier in a refinery power plant. An investigation revealed that the failure began as cracking in the gasifier internals, which led to bulging and stress rupture of the vessel shell, and the escape of hot syngas...
Abstract
A pressure vessel failed causing an external fire on a nine-story coke gasifier in a refinery power plant. An investigation revealed that the failure began as cracking in the gasifier internals, which led to bulging and stress rupture of the vessel shell, and the escape of hot syngas, setting off the fire. The failure mechanisms include stress relaxation cracking of a large diameter Incoloy 825 tube, stress rupture of a 4.65 in. thick chromium steel shell wall, and the oxidation of chromium steel exposed to hot syngas. The gasifier process and operating conditions that contributed to the high-temperature degradation were also analyzed and are discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006780
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... Abstract The principal types of elevated-temperature mechanical failure are creep and stress rupture, stress relaxation, low- and high-cycle fatigue, thermal fatigue, tension overload, and combinations of these, as modified by environment. This article briefly reviews the applied aspects...
Abstract
The principal types of elevated-temperature mechanical failure are creep and stress rupture, stress relaxation, low- and high-cycle fatigue, thermal fatigue, tension overload, and combinations of these, as modified by environment. This article briefly reviews the applied aspects of creep-related failures, where the mechanical strength of a material becomes limited by creep rather than by its elastic limit. The majority of information provided is applicable to metallic materials, and only general information regarding creep-related failures of polymeric materials is given. The article also reviews various factors related to creep behavior and associated failures of materials used in high-temperature applications. The complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction, microstructural changes during classical creep, and nondestructive creep damage assessment of metallic materials are also discussed. The article describes the fracture characteristics of stress rupture. Information on various metallurgical instabilities is also provided. The article presents a description of thermal-fatigue cracks, as distinguished from creep-rupture cracks.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.bldgs.c9001221
EISBN: 978-1-62708-219-8
... Abstract During the construction of a prestressed concrete viaduct, several 12.2 mm diam wires ruptured after tensioning but before the channels were grouted. They were made of heat treated prestressed concrete steel St 145/160. While the wire bundles, each containing over 100 wires, were being...
Abstract
During the construction of a prestressed concrete viaduct, several 12.2 mm diam wires ruptured after tensioning but before the channels were grouted. They were made of heat treated prestressed concrete steel St 145/160. While the wire bundles, each containing over 100 wires, were being drawn into the channels they were repeatedly pulled over the sharp edges of square section guide blocks. The fractures were initiated at these chafe zones. It was concluded that the chafing of the wires on the edges of the guide blocks, particularly the resulting martensite formation, caused the wires to rupture.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.petrol.c9001247
EISBN: 978-1-62708-228-0
... Abstract Three samples from a ruptured 316 stainless steel tube were examined. The tube, 114 mm OD, wall thickness 8.00 mm, with 13 mm thick 321 stainless steel fins welded to the outer surface of the tube, was part of a heater through which sour gas, containing methane plus H2S and CO, passed...
Abstract
Three samples from a ruptured 316 stainless steel tube were examined. The tube, 114 mm OD, wall thickness 8.00 mm, with 13 mm thick 321 stainless steel fins welded to the outer surface of the tube, was part of a heater through which sour gas, containing methane plus H2S and CO, passed at 1150 psig. The sour gas was heated to 600 deg F by burners playing on the outside of the tube burning “sweet” gas plus air. The inner and outer surfaces of all samples showed evidence of corrosive attack. Electron probe microanalysis showed the corrosion products contained sulfur with iron, together with nickel to a lesser extent. Local thinning, cavitation, and ductile deformation markings associated with the unmatched sample taken from the center of the fire showed the tube ruptured as a result of overheating. Overheating while the temperature recorder was off the chart caused severe loss of tube strength, resulting in ductile rupture. The minimum overheating temperature could be deduced at around 1200 deg F due to the presence of a eutectic observed metallographically within the surface corrosion products.
Image
Published: 01 January 2002
Fig. 6 Logarithmic plot of stress-rupture stress versus rupture life for Co-Cr-Ni-base alloy S-590. The significance of inflection points A, B, N, O, and Y is explained in the text. Source: Ref 10
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Image
Published: 01 January 2002
Fig. 12 Logarithmic plot of stress-rupture stress versus rupture life for nickel-base alloy U-700 at 815 °C (1500 °F). The increasing slope of the curve to the right of the sigma break is caused by sigma-phase formation.
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