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oxidation corrosion
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Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 11 Several layers (both dense and porous) of waterside oxidation/corrosion make up the hot-side deposit in the vicinity of the failure. Needlelike, fibrous oxides are contained in one layer, and another layer contains several copper metal particles. Original magnification: 210×. Courtesy
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Image
Published: 01 January 2002
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of a generic corrosion cell showing anodic oxidation of the metal ( M ) complemented by cathodic reduction of an electron acceptor ( X ). The corrosion rate can be controlled by the rate of arrival of X at the cathodic surface, a buildup of metal ions, M
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Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001834
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... Abstract The failure of T12 reheater tubes that had been in service for only 3000 h was investigated. The thickness of the tubes was visibly reduced by heavy oxidation corrosion on the inner and outer walls. The original pearlite substrate completely decomposed. Uniform oxide scale observed...
Abstract
The failure of T12 reheater tubes that had been in service for only 3000 h was investigated. The thickness of the tubes was visibly reduced by heavy oxidation corrosion on the inner and outer walls. The original pearlite substrate completely decomposed. Uniform oxide scale observed on the inner wall showed obvious vapor oxidation corrosion characteristics. Corrosion originated in the grain boundary, and selective oxidation occurred due to ion diffusion in the substrate. The layered oxide scale on the inner wall is related to the different diffusion rates for different cations. Exposure to high temperature corrosive flux accelerated the corrosion on the outer wall. Microstructure degradation and the corrosion characteristics observed indicate that the tubes failed primarily because of overheating, which is confirmed by calculations.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001818
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... sleeve. The findings from the investigation indicated that internal oxidation corrosion, driven by high temperatures, was the primary cause of failure. Prolonged exposure to temperatures up to 760 °C resulted in sensitization of the material, making it vulnerable to grain boundary attack. This led...
Abstract
A sleeve-shaped fire shield that operates inside one of two burner trains in an oil and gas processing unit ruptured after 15 y of service. A detailed analysis was conducted to determine how and why the sleeve failed. The investigation included visual inspection, chemical and gas analysis, mechanical property testing, stereomicroscopy, and metallographic examination. The fire sleeves are fabricated from 3-mm thick plate made of Incoloy 800 rolled into 540-mm diam sections welded along the seam. Three such sections are joined together by circumferential welds to form a single 2.8 m sleeve. The findings from the investigation indicated that internal oxidation corrosion, driven by high temperatures, was the primary cause of failure. Prolonged exposure to temperatures up to 760 °C resulted in sensitization of the material, making it vulnerable to grain boundary attack. This led to significant deterioration of the grain boundaries, causing extensive grain loss (grain dropping) and the subsequent thinning of sleeve walls. Prior to failure, some portions of the sleeve were only 1.6 mm thick, nearly half their original thickness.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001848
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... of the die was covered with fatigue cracks and many fillets had been plastically deformed. Several other types of damage were also observed, including areas of oxidation, corrosion pits, voids, abrasive wear, die adhesion, and thermal fatigue. Fatigue cracking was the primary cause of failure...
Abstract
A forging die in a 250-ton press producing brass valves began to show signs of fatigue after a few thousand hits. By the time it reached 30,000 hits, the die was badly damaged and was submitted for analysis along with one of the last forgings produced. The investigation included visual and macroscopic inspection, metallographic and chemical analysis, SEM imaging, optical profilometry, mechanical property testing, and EDX analysis. The die was made of chromium hot-work tool steel and the forgings were made of CuZn39Pb3 heated to an initial working temperature 700 deg C. The entire surface of the die was covered with fatigue cracks and many fillets had been plastically deformed. Several other types of damage were also observed, including areas of oxidation, corrosion pits, voids, abrasive wear, die adhesion, and thermal fatigue. Fatigue cracking was the primary cause of failure with significant contributions from the other damage mechanisms.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.machtools.c0045903
EISBN: 978-1-62708-223-5
... in.) from the origin along the wall of a hydraulic-oil bleed hole. Investigation with a SEM showed corrosion pits along the bleed hole wall, but oxidation and corrosion prevented review of microfractographic details. Vacuum epoxy encapsulation, sectioning of the bleed hole, and metallographic examination...
Abstract
A 230 mm (9 in.) thick casing, fabricated from ASTM 235-55 low-carbon steel, of a 450 Mg (500 ton) extrusion press failed after 27 years of service. Initial visual examination revealed an area that exhibited multiple origins and classic beach marks radiating out approximately 75 mm (3 in.) from the origin along the wall of a hydraulic-oil bleed hole. Investigation with a SEM showed corrosion pits along the bleed hole wall, but oxidation and corrosion prevented review of microfractographic details. Vacuum epoxy encapsulation, sectioning of the bleed hole, and metallographic examination revealed a basic microstructure of pearlite and ferrite with bands of slightly finer pearlite, with a large concentration of inclusion stringers in the area of the fracture origin. Further investigation using an energy-dispersive x-ray analyzer showed high concentrations of sulfur and manganese. Thus, the failure appeared to have resulted from corrosion-assisted fatigue, and the inclusion concentration in the fracture-initiated area indicated that the chemical-composition limits for sulfur and manganese would have greatly exceeded material specifications. A higher quality steel was recommended for the replacement unit to lessen the possibility of such gross inclusion segregation and to improve the fracture toughness of the cylinder.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c0046874
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... (0.045 in.) in diameter had initiated two cracks 0.7 and 1.5 mm (0.028 and 0.060 in.) deep. The cracks contained an iron oxide corrosion product that enclosed spheroidal carbide particles. The microstructure of the spring consisted of spheroidal carbide particles in a matrix of tempered martensite...
Abstract
The safety valve on a steam turbogenerator was set to open when the steam pressure reaches 2400 kPa (348 psi). The pressure had not exceeded 1790 kPa (260 psi) when the safety-valve spring shattered into 12 pieces. The steam temperature in the line varied from about 330 to 400 deg C (625 to 750 deg F). Because the spring was enclosed and mounted above the valve, its temperature was probably slightly lower. The 195 mm (7 in.) OD x 305 mm (12 in.) long spring was made from a 35 mm (1 in.) diam rod of H21 hot-work tool steel. It had been in service for about four years and had been subjected to mildly fluctuating stresses. Analysis (visual inspection, 0.3x photographs, 0.7x light fractographs, and metallographic examination) supported the conclusions that the spring failed by corrosion fatigue that resulted from application of a fluctuating load in the presence of a moisture-laden atmosphere. Recommendations included replacing all safety valves in the system with new open-top valves that had shot-peened and galvanized steel springs. Alternatively, the valve springs could be made from a corrosion-resistant metal-for example, a 300 series austenitic stainless steel or a nickel-base alloy, such as Hastelloy B or C.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001695
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... and the fuel core of spent fuel are presented in the next four sections. Oxide Films on Aluminum Aluminum is one of the most thermodynamically reactive metals. Aluminum owes its excellent corrosion resistance in most environments to the protective barrier oxide film formed and strongly bonded to its...
Abstract
Large quantities of aluminum-clad spent nuclear materials have been in interim storage in the fuel storage basins at The Savannah River Site while awaiting processing since 1989. This extended storage as a result of a moratorium on processing resulted in corrosion of the aluminum clad. Examinations of this fuel and other data from a corrosion surveillance program in the water basins have provided basic insight into the corrosion process and have resulted in improvements in the storage facilities and basin operations. Since these improvements were implemented, there has been no new initiation of pitting observed since 1993. This paper describes the corrosion of spent fuel and the metallographic examination of Mark 31A target slugs removed from the K-basin storage pool after 5 years of storage. It discusses the SRS Corrosion Surveillance Program and the improvements made to the storage facilities which have mitigated new corrosion in the basins.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0006417
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
..., presumably in an oxide form. The inside surface had the appearance of typical corrosion products. Hardness measurements indicated that the 4340 steel was heat treated to a strength of approximately 862 MPa (125 ksi). It was concluded that the oxide detected on the ballast elbow was iron oxide...
Abstract
A cadmium-plated 4340 Ni-Cr-Mo steel ballast elbow assembly was submitted for failure analysis to determine the element or radical present in an oxidation product found inside the elbow assembly. Energy-dispersive x-ray analysis in the SEM showed that iron was the predominant species, presumably in an oxide form. The inside surface had the appearance of typical corrosion products. Hardness measurements indicated that the 4340 steel was heat treated to a strength of approximately 862 MPa (125 ksi). It was concluded that the oxide detected on the ballast elbow was iron oxide. The possibility that the corrosion products would eventually create a blockage of the affected hole was great considering the small hole diameter (4.2 mm, or 0.165 in.). It was recommended that a quick fix to stop the corrosion would be to apply a corrosion inhibitor inside the hole. This, however, would cause the possibility of inhibitor buildup and the eventual clogging of the hole. A change in the manufacturing process to include a cadmium plating on the hole inside surface was recommended. This was to be accomplished in accordance with MIL specification QQ-P-416, Type II, Class 1. A material change to 300-series stainless steel was also recommended.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006787
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... oxidation, carburization, metal dusting, nitridation, carbonitridation, sulfidation, and chloridation. Several other potential degradation processes, namely hot corrosion, hydrogen interactions, molten salts, aging, molten sand, erosion-corrosion, and environmental cracking, are discussed under boiler tube...
Abstract
High-temperature corrosion can occur in numerous environments and is affected by various parameters such as temperature, alloy and protective coating compositions, stress, time, and gas composition. This article discusses the primary mechanisms of high-temperature corrosion, namely oxidation, carburization, metal dusting, nitridation, carbonitridation, sulfidation, and chloridation. Several other potential degradation processes, namely hot corrosion, hydrogen interactions, molten salts, aging, molten sand, erosion-corrosion, and environmental cracking, are discussed under boiler tube failures, molten salts for energy storage, and degradation and failures in gas turbines. The article describes the effects of environment on aero gas turbine engines and provides an overview of aging, diffusion, and interdiffusion phenomena. It also discusses the processes involved in high-temperature coatings that improve performance of superalloy.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.marine.c0046969
EISBN: 978-1-62708-227-3
... blades IN-713 UNS N07713 High-temperature corrosion and oxidation Aluminide-coated and uncoated IN-713 turbine blades were returned for evaluation after service in a marine environment because of severe corrosion. Based on service time, failure of these blades by corrosive deterioration...
Abstract
Aluminide-coated and uncoated IN-713 turbine blades were returned for evaluation after service in a marine environment because of severe corrosion. Based on service time, failure of these blades by corrosive deterioration was considered to be premature. Analysis (visual inspection, 2.7x micrographic examination on sections etched with ferric chloride and hydrochloric acid in methanol) supported the conclusions that the blades failed by hot-corrosion attack. Variation in rate of attack on coated blades was attributed to variation in integrity of the aluminide coating, which had been applied in 1966, when these coatings were relatively new. It is evident that maintaining the integrity of a protective coating could significantly increase the life of a nickel-base alloy blade operating in a hot and corrosive environment.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001109
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
...: modification of the processing parameters to reduce the salt deposition and / or change of bar materials to a more resistant alloy. Castings Fluxing Fused salts Hot gas corrosion Ironmaking Pelleting Sintering furnaces HH UNS J93503 High-temperature corrosion and oxidation Background...
Abstract
Grate bars in the traveling grate indurators in several taconite processing units suffered excessive corrosion following a conversion from acid to fluxed pellet production procedures. The campaign life of the HH grade cast stainless steel bars was reduced from more than 7 years to approximately 9 months. Several corroded grate bars were examined metallographically and by electron microscopy to determine the causes of the accelerated corrosion. Chemical and X-ray diffraction analyses were also conducted, along with simulation tests to assess the role of alkali chlorides in the corrosion process. The basic cause of degradation was found to be hot corrosion caused by the deposition of alkali sulfates and chlorides. However this degradation may have been aggravated by thermal cycling and abrasion. The source of the salt was impurities in the flux. Two potential solutions were proposed: modification of the processing parameters to reduce the salt deposition and / or change of bar materials to a more resistant alloy.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003555
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract High temperature corrosion may occur in numerous environments and is affected by factors such as temperature, alloy or protective coating composition, time, and gas composition. This article explains a number of potential degradation processes, namely, oxidation, carburization...
Abstract
High temperature corrosion may occur in numerous environments and is affected by factors such as temperature, alloy or protective coating composition, time, and gas composition. This article explains a number of potential degradation processes, namely, oxidation, carburization and metal dusting, sulfidation, hot corrosion, chloridation, hydrogen interactions, molten metals, molten salts, and aging reactions including sensitization, stress-corrosion cracking, and corrosion fatigue. It concludes with a discussion on various protective coatings, such as aluminide coatings, overlay coatings, thermal barrier coatings, and ceramic coatings.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001827
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... of high-temperature oxidation on the hot corrosion process. Preventative measures are also discussed. gas turbine thermal fatigue cracking hot corrosion superalloys corrosion cavities spark optical emission spectrometry operating temperature GTD 111 (cast nickel-base superalloy) FSX 414...
Abstract
Gas turbines and other types of combustion turbomachinery are susceptible to hot corrosion at elevated temperatures. Two such cases resulting in the failure of a gas turbine component were investigated to learn more about the hot corrosion process and the underlying failure mechanisms. Each component was analyzed using optical and scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, mechanical testing, and nondestructive techniques. The results of the investigation provide insights on the influence of temperature, composition, and microstructure and the contributing effects of high-temperature oxidation on the hot corrosion process. Preventative measures are also discussed.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0091293
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... Abstract Copper piping in a closed-loop water heater system was found to be corroded with MIC and erosion of the weak oxide layer. Investigation (visual inspection, bacterial corrosion cultures, and 20x/400x micrographs) supported the conclusion that the corrosion was caused by microbiological...
Abstract
Copper piping in a closed-loop water heater system was found to be corroded with MIC and erosion of the weak oxide layer. Investigation (visual inspection, bacterial corrosion cultures, and 20x/400x micrographs) supported the conclusion that the corrosion was caused by microbiological attack, specifically sulfur-reducing bacteria. No recommendations were made.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003551
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... to describe, and no single word properly fits. Corrosion involves a combination of different mechanisms, such as dissolution and invasive penetration (where diffusion, grain boundary, and stress corrosion may all be present), and oxidation-reduction reactions (where absorption, desorption, and mass transport...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on the structural ceramics used in gas turbine components, the automotive and aerospace industries, or as heat exchangers in various segments of the chemical and power generation industries. It covers the fundamental aspects of chemical corrosion and describes the corrosion resistance characteristics of specific classes of refractories and structural ceramics. The article also examines the prevention strategies that minimize corrosion failures of both classes of materials.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0091291
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... injected to control the scaling was added ahead of the preheater, where the boiler water still contained oxygen. As the chelate removed iron oxide, the O2 in the water continued to form more. Recommendations included moving the chelate addition to a point after the deaerator to stop the corrosion...
Abstract
Carbon steel tubes from a boiler feedwater heater feeding a deaerator were treated to control scale formation, but the treatment instead produced more iron oxide. The additional iron oxide reduced the tubing to a totally corroded condition. Investigation showed that the chelate injected to control the scaling was added ahead of the preheater, where the boiler water still contained oxygen. As the chelate removed iron oxide, the O2 in the water continued to form more. Recommendations included moving the chelate addition to a point after the deaerator to stop the corrosion.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.auto.c9001182
EISBN: 978-1-62708-218-1
... in the scale are continued as fine cracks in the metal. Fig. 1 Longitudinal section through the fracture, unetched. Oxide rich seam in the edge zone; cleft like crack with enclosed oxide. Fracture site to the left. 200 × The corrosion phenomena (scaling) in particular were studied in the vicinity...
Abstract
A broken exhaust valve from the cylinder of a motor car had a 30-mm disk diam and 8-mm stem diam. The site of the fracture was directly where the valve cone joined the cylindrical stem. Both the cone and the stem were heavily scaled in the vicinity of the fracture; in some parts the scale has flaked off. Furthermore, the rim of the disk was badly damaged by secondary mechanical action. The core of the valve had a very fine austenitic microstructure with precipitations of numerous granular and very fine, mostly rounded carbides and tine segregation bands. A hard alloy facing was welded on to the valve seat. Fracture was a consequence of fatigue corrosion cracking, itself strongly promoted by the presence of sulphur compounds. The origin of these corrosive sulphur compounds could not be explained.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003549
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... electrically charged, which is clearly impossible. The corrosion of zinc in hydrochloric acid is an electrochemical process. That is, any reaction that can be divided into two or more partial reactions of oxidation and reduction due to the transfer of electrical charge is termed electrochemical. Dividing...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the electrochemical nature of corrosion and analyzes corrosion-related failures. It describes corrosion failure analysis and discusses corrective and preventive approaches to mitigate corrosion-related failures of metals. These include: change in the environment; change in the alloy or heat treatment; change in design; use of galvanic protection; use of inhibitors; use of nonmetallic coatings and liners; application of metallic coatings; use of surface treatments, thermal spray, or other surface modifications; corrosion monitoring; and preventive maintenance.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001061
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... and heat-affected zones (HAZs). Fracture/crack morphology was brittle and primarily intergranular and deposits at crack tips were primarily iron oxides with significant amounts of sodium compounds. On these bases, the cracking was characterized as intergranular stress-corrosion cracking (IGSCC). Corrosion...
Abstract
Schedule 80 low-carbon steel pipes used to transfer kraft liquor in a Kamyr continuous pulp digester failed within 18 months after installation. Visual and metallographic examinations established that the cracking initiated on the internal surfaces of the equalizer pipes in the welds and heat-affected zones (HAZs). Fracture/crack morphology was brittle and primarily intergranular and deposits at crack tips were primarily iron oxides with significant amounts of sodium compounds. On these bases, the cracking was characterized as intergranular stress-corrosion cracking (IGSCC). Corrosion-related deterioration was not found, indicating that the material was generally suitable for the intended service. High residual tensile stresses in the welds and HAZS, resulting from field welding under highly constrained conditions using inadequate weld procedures, were the most probable cause of the failures. Minimizing residual stresses through use of welding procedures that include appropriate preweld and interpass temperatures and postweld stress relief heat treatment at 650 deg C (1200 deg F) was recommended to prevent further failures.
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