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Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001767
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... Abstract Six transformer brackets failed in service, sending a group of three pole-mounted transformers to the ground below. The brackets were made from acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) resin and had been in service for more than 30 years. Remnants of the fractured brackets were analyzed...
Abstract
Six transformer brackets failed in service, sending a group of three pole-mounted transformers to the ground below. The brackets were made from acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) resin and had been in service for more than 30 years. Remnants of the fractured brackets were analyzed using optical and scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The exterior surfaces of all six brackets were alike and shared similar features, including witness marks, discoloration, mechanical deformation, and secondary cracking, along with crack networks. Both FTIR and TGA analyses indicated that the surface material was in a highly degraded state, likely due to weathering and thermal and ultraviolet exposure. This, in turn, led to the formation of cracks that propagated under the cyclic forces of vibration and wind. As the cracks grew larger, the weight of the transformer eventually overloaded the brackets, resulting in failure.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.bldgs.c9001618
EISBN: 978-1-62708-219-8
... in. thick plate. The cracks originated in the vicinity of the welds between the mounting bracket and the arms. Fig. 1 (a) and (b) Sketch of typical arm and cross section One recurring remark throughout this investigation was, “This is the way we have always done it, and nothing has changed...
Abstract
Arms bolted to powerline towers were falling off two weeks after installation. Metallurgical and chemical analysis performed on the base metal, weld zone, and heat-affected zone showed acceptable quality material. Residual stress appeared to be responsible for the high failure rate. The sources of residual stress included welding, environment, and assembly operation.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.auto.c9001514
EISBN: 978-1-62708-218-1
... rolled over after an accident. The tank had been attached through twelve mounting bracket weldments. In all but two cases,double fillet welds which attached the brackets to a channel fractured with no deformation of the base metal. Figure 10 shows one of the brackets, in which a partial separation...
Abstract
A front-wheel drive hatchback automobile was involved in a severe front end impact. Failure analysis of the automobile revealed only a single sound spot weld in each of two 66 cm (26 in.) sections of both upper and lower floor sill flanges. Consequently, upon impact, the floor pan separated from the rocker panel, buckled and rotated upward and forward. This introduced slack in the seat belts since their retractors, being anchored to the floor pan, also rotated forward. Although not contributory to the accident itself, the faulty welds were responsible in part for the severity of the injuries sustained by the driver. The faulty welds in the unit body were apparently a consequence of improper settings of parameters on a multihead electrical resistance spot welding machine. Lack of appreciation of the hazard associated with failure of this weldment may have contributed to the low frequency of their physical inspection during production. A similar case involving faulty welds in a fuel delivery truck is also discussed.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001744
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... Abstract Two examples involved brittle fracture promoted by small fatigue cracks owing to welding deficiencies. Other parts involving inadequate welding were a ski-wheel axle flange, ski fitting (brackets), and undercarriage shock strut stub assembly. In an attach fitting for an engine mount...
Abstract
Two examples involved brittle fracture promoted by small fatigue cracks owing to welding deficiencies. Other parts involving inadequate welding were a ski-wheel axle flange, ski fitting (brackets), and undercarriage shock strut stub assembly. In an attach fitting for an engine mount, weld cracks (severe stress concentrations) formed during repair welding. Cracks were severely oxidized. The main cause was incorrect repair and inadequate inspection of the fitting. In a cast CrNi alloy ski wheel axle, brittle fatigue failure emanated from welding cracks (notches). These welding cracks formed during the fabrication of the axle mounting plate. So-called all-purpose electrodes were used. Thus, the main cause for failure was a manufacturing deficiency-fatigue failure developed because of improper welding during fabrication of the axle. The proper electrode should have been used.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001506
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... fitting had failed, and at the other end by the induction system. A fuel flow transducer is mounted near the mid point of the line and is supported by the bracket. The fuel flow transducer is a relatively heavy mass and requires the secure support of the bracket, so that vibration loads applied during...
Abstract
A single-engine aircraft was climbing to 8000 ft when the engine suddenly lost power. The landing gear was torn off during the emergency landing. During the field investigation, the fuel line was found to be separated from the fuel pump outlet due to a failure of the elbow fitting. A bracket which supports the in-line fuel flow transducer also was found broken. Examination of the elbow fracture revealed characteristics of low-cycle fatigue failure. Examination of the support bracket fractures revealed a high-cycle mode of fatigue failure, with the primary fatigue extending along the full length of the 90 deg bend in the bracket. It was concluded that the failure was caused by an incorrectly-installed support bracket. It was recommended that the installation procedure be clarified.
Image
in Failure Analysis of Welded Structures
> Analysis and Prevention of Component and Equipment Failures
Published: 30 August 2021
Fig. 26 Fractured L-shaped bracket and cracked welded connection between the exhaust manifold and the mounting flange
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Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001028
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... are used in the lubrication subsystem of a large commercial helicopter engine. The oil tank assemblies are mounted directly to the forward end of the turbine engines and are subjected to a large amount of vibration. Because the tanks are not part of a high-pressure system (35 kPa, or 5 psig, maximum...
Abstract
Several AISI type 321 stainless steel welded oil tank assemblies used on helicopter engine systems began to leak in service. One failure, a fracture on the aft side of a spot weld, was submitted for analysis. SEM fractography examination revealed fatigue failure. The failure initiated at an overload fracture near the root of the weld and was followed by mode III fatigue crack propagation (tearing) around the periphery of the weld. The initial overload fracture was caused by a high external load, which produced a concentrated stress and fracture at the weld root. The subsequent fatigue fracture was caused by engine vibrations during operation of the aircraft. Fracture characteristics indicated that the fatigue would not have occurred if the initial damage had not taken place.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006814
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
Abstract
Welded connections are a common location for failures for many reasons, as explained in this article. This article looks at such failures from a holistic perspective. It discusses the interaction of manufacturing-related cracking and service failures and primarily deals with failures that occur in service due to stresses caused by externally applied loads. The purpose of this article is to enable a failure analyst to identify the causative factors that lead to welded connection failure and to identify the corrective actions needed to overcome such failures in the future. Additionally, the reader will learn from the mistakes of others and use principles that will avoid the occurrence of similar failures in the future. The topics covered include failure analysis fundamentals, welded connections failure analysis, welded connections and discontinuities, and fatigue. In addition, several case studies that demonstrate how a holistic approach to failure analysis is necessary are presented.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.marine.c9001703
EISBN: 978-1-62708-227-3
... of the antenna. Figure 1 shows the antenna mounting arrangement. There are two of these units on each of the twelve ships in this particular class, the first of which entered service in 1991. The failed component had been in service for approximately three years. Fig. 1 Antenna assembly and mast support...
Abstract
This paper describes the metallurgical investigation of a broken spindle used to attach an antenna to the mast of a naval vessel. Visual inspections of both failed and intact fastener assemblies were carried out both on-board ship and in the laboratory followed by metallographic and fractographic examinations. Simulations were also performed on stressed material in a suitable environment to assess the relative importance of postulated failure mechanisms. Factors contributing to this failure including assembly procedures and applied preloads, service loading and environment, and material selection and specification. The discussion considers whether this failure was an isolated incident or is likely to be a fleet-wide problem, and suggests ways to prevent reoccurrence.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006821
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... envelope (adapted from Ref 5 ). Case Study 2: BOAC Flight 911 In 1966, the in-flight breakup of a Boeing 707 occurred over Gotemba, Japan, near Mount Fuji. Analysis of the wreckage indicated that the airplane experienced an abrupt asymmetric upward load on the wings, with the load primarily...
Abstract
This article focuses on failure analyses of aircraft components from a metallurgical and materials engineering standpoint, which considers the interdependence of processing, structure, properties, and performance of materials. It discusses methodologies for conducting aircraft investigations and inspections and emphasizes cases where metallurgical or materials contributions were causal to an accident event. The article highlights how the failure of a component or system can affect the associated systems and the overall aircraft. The case studies in this article provide examples of aircraft component and system-level failures that resulted from various factors, including operational stresses, environmental effects, improper maintenance/inspection/repair, construction and installation issues, manufacturing issues, and inadequate design.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006763
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... where the camera can be mounted to either a tabletop photo stand or to a tripod. Shutter Speed Professional digital camera shutter speed in failure analysis photography is critical in creating sharp photographs. With nonflash photography, the highest shutter speed possible is preferred because...
Abstract
Failure analysis is an investigative process that uses visual observations of features present on a failed component fracture surface combined with component and environmental conditions to determine the root cause of a failure. The primary means of recording the conditions and features observed during a failure analysis investigation is photography. Failure analysis photographic imaging is a combination of both science and art; experience and proper imaging techniques are required to produce an accurate and meaningful fracture surface photograph. This article reviews photographic principles and techniques as applied to failure analysis, both in the field and in the laboratory. The discussion covers the processes involved in field and laboratory photographic documentations, provides a description of professional digital cameras, and gives information on photographic lighting and microscopic photography. Special techniques can be employed to deal with highly reflective conditions and are also described in this article.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006851
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... to diffraction. The typical aperture setting for most failure analysis photography is F8 to F11. Higher aperture settings may be used in conditions where sufficient light is available, such as through the use of an external flash, and/or when the camera can be mounted, such as to a tripod, to eliminate vibration...
Abstract
Failure analysis is an investigative process in which the visual observations of features present on a failed component and the surrounding environment are essential in determining the root cause of a failure. This article reviews the basic photographic principles and techniques that are applied to failure analysis, both in the field and in the laboratory. It discusses the processes involved in visual examination, field photographic documentation, and laboratory photographic documentation of failed components. The article describes the operating principles of each part of a professional digital camera. It covers basic photographic principles and manipulation of settings that assist in producing high-quality images. The need for accurate photographic documentation in failure analysis is also presented.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001561
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... surface was covered with an oxide film and showed evidence of significant heating during welding. Eight sections were then cut bracketing the crack to facilitate further examinations. Brookhaven Test Results Table 1 Brookhaven Test Results Base Metal Weld Metal Fe 66.6 67.9 63.6...
Abstract
An intergranular stress-corrosion cracking failure of 304 stainless steel pipe in 2000 ppm B as H3BO3 + H2O at 100 deg C was investigated. Constant extension rate testing produced an intergranular type failure in material in air. Chemical analysis was performed on both the base metal and weld material, in addition to fractography, EPR testing and optical microscopy in discerning the mode of failure. Various effects of Cl-, O2 and MnS are discussed. Results indicated that the cause of failure was the severe sensitization coupled with probable contamination by S and possibly by Cl ions.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003527
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... be capable of being mounted on the camera as a “hot shoe” flash or on an extension cord for side lighting. A typical flash arrangement with an off-camera extension cord is shown in Fig. 3 . It is preferable that flash photography be performed in a through-the-lens metering mode to achieve optimal exposure...
Abstract
This article reviews photographic principles, namely, visual examination, field photographic documentation, and laboratory photographic documentation, as applied to failure analysis and the specific techniques employed in both the field and laboratory. It provides information on the photographic equipment used in failure analysis and on film and digital photography. The article describes the basics of photography and the uses of different types of lighting in photography of a fractured surface. The article also addresses the techniques involved in macrophotography and microscopic photography as well as other special techniques.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003525
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... it subsequently extended. This is usually ascertained using a number of visual-based techniques, such as stereomicroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and the preparation of mounted cross sections. Noncatastrophic failure modes are also relevant, and these include discoloration, distortion...
Abstract
This article reviews the analytical techniques most commonly used in plastic component failure analysis. These include the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, thermomechanical analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The descriptions of the analytical techniques are supplemented by a series of case studies that include pertinent visual examination results and the corresponding images that aid in the characterization of the failures. The article describes the methods used for determining the molecular weight of a plastic resin. It explains the use of mechanical testing in failure analysis and also describes the considerations in the selection and use of test methods.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003553
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... stress. Nine contact fingers were mounted in each of the two slots of each retainer, and a bank of four to eight retainers held the electrical contacts for a typical circuit breaker system. When a retainer cracked, the usual consequences were open circuits across some contacts, short circuits...
Abstract
This article commences with a discussion on the characteristics of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) and describes crack initiation and propagation during SCC. It reviews the various mechanisms of SCC and addresses electrochemical and stress-sorption theories. The article explains the SCC, which occurs due to welding, metalworking process, and stress concentration, including options for investigation and corrective measures. It describes the sources of stresses in service and the effect of composition and metal structure on the susceptibility of SCC. The article provides information on specific ions and substances, service environments, and preservice environments responsible for SCC. It details the analysis of SCC failures, which include on-site examination, sampling, observation of fracture surface characteristics, macroscopic examination, microscopic examination, chemical analysis, metallographic analysis, and simulated-service tests. It provides case studies for the analysis of SCC service failures and their occurrence in steels, stainless steels, and commercial alloys of aluminum, copper, magnesium, and titanium.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003519
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... fails and everything stops. Functional failure of a component, such as a bearing or bracket, is very obvious. Functional failure of a machine can apply to something as large as an airplane or as small as a nutcracker. The difficulty in determining the root cause of the failure increases...
Abstract
This article reviews the most common reasons for failures and the purpose of a failure investigation. It discusses the nine steps for the organization of a good failure investigation. The three basic tools that are helpful in any failure investigation, namely, a fault tree, a failure mode assessment chart, and a technical plan for resolution chart, are reviewed. The article briefly describes failure investigation pitfalls and concludes with information on the other common tools used for failure investigation and root cause determination.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006933
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... cracking, and fatigue. The determination of the fracture failure mode involves identifying the crack-initiation mechanism and the propagation mode. This is usually ascertained using visual-based techniques such as stereomicroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and the preparation of mounted cross sections...
Abstract
This article reviews analytical techniques that are most often used in plastic component failure analysis. The description of the techniques is intended to familiarize the reader with the general principles and benefits of the methodologies, namely Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The article describes the methods for molecular weight assessment and mechanical testing to evaluate plastics and polymers. The descriptions of the analytical techniques are supplemented by a series of case studies to illustrate the significance of each method. The case studies also include pertinent visual examination results and the corresponding images that aided in the characterization of the failures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006755
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
..., such as a bearing or bracket, is very obvious and sometimes catastrophic. Functional failure of a machine can apply to something as large as an airplane or as small as a nutcracker. The difficulty in determining the root cause of the failure increases with the complexity of the component or machine, but the root...
Abstract
This article discusses the organization required at the outset of a failure investigation and provides a methodology with some organizational tools. It focuses on the use of problem-solving tools such as a fault tree analysis combined with critical thinking. The discussion covers nine steps to organize a good failure investigation. They are as follows: understand and negotiate goals of the investigation, obtain a clear understanding of the failure, identify all possible root causes, objectively evaluate the likelihood of each root cause, converge on the most likely root cause(s), objectively and clearly identify all possible corrective actions, objectively evaluate each corrective action, select optimal corrective action(s), and evaluate effectiveness of selected corrective action(s). Common problems detrimental to a failure investigation are also covered.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003544
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
Abstract
This article describes three design-life methods or philosophies of fatigue, namely, infinite-life, finite-life, and damage tolerant. It outlines the three stages in the process of fatigue fracture: the initial fatigue damage leading to crack initiation, progressive cyclic growth of crack, and the sudden fracture of the remaining cross section. The article discusses the effects of loading and stress distribution on fatigue cracks, and reviews the fatigue behavior of materials when subjected to different loading conditions such as bending and loading. The article examines the effects of load frequency and temperature, material condition, and manufacturing practices on fatigue strength. It provides information on subsurface discontinuities, including gas porosity, inclusions, and internal bursts as well as on corrosion fatigue testing to measure rates of fatigue-crack propagation in different environments. The article concludes with a discussion on rolling-contact fatigue, macropitting, micropitting, and subcase fatigue.
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