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Book Chapter
Mechanical Testing and Properties of Plastics—An Introduction
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006928
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... Abstract This article briefly introduces some commonly used methods for mechanical testing. It describes the test methods and provides comparative data for the mechanical property tests. In addition, creep testing and dynamic mechanical analyses of viscoelastic plastics are also briefly...
Abstract
This article briefly introduces some commonly used methods for mechanical testing. It describes the test methods and provides comparative data for the mechanical property tests. In addition, creep testing and dynamic mechanical analyses of viscoelastic plastics are also briefly described. The article discusses the processes involved in the short-term and long-term tensile testing of plastics. Information on the strength/modulus and deflection tests, impact toughness, hardness testing, and fatigue testing of plastics is also provided. The article describes tension testing of elastomers and fibers. It covers two basic methods to test the mechanical properties of fibers, namely the single-filament tension test and the tensile test of a yarn or a group of fibers.
Book Chapter
Mechanical Testing in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006761
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... Abstract Mechanical testing is an evaluative tool used by the failure analyst to collect data regarding the macro- and micromechanical properties of the materials being examined. This article provides information on a few important considerations regarding mechanical testing that the failure...
Abstract
Mechanical testing is an evaluative tool used by the failure analyst to collect data regarding the macro- and micromechanical properties of the materials being examined. This article provides information on a few important considerations regarding mechanical testing that the failure analyst must keep in mind. These considerations include the test location and orientation, the use of raw material certifications, the certifications potentially not representing the hardware, and the determination of valid test results. The article introduces the concepts of various mechanical testing techniques and discusses the advantages and limitations of each technique when used in failure analysis. The focus is on various types of static load testing, hardness testing, and impact testing. The testing types covered include uniaxial tension testing, uniaxial compression testing, bend testing, hardness testing, macroindentation hardness, microindentation hardness, and the impact toughness test.
Book Chapter
Fracture Mechanics Testing of Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006910
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... to fracture (glassy polymers). This article provides an overview of historical development of fracture behavior in polymers. It discusses the processes involved in three fracture test methods for polymers, namely linear elastic fracture mechanics, elastic-plastic fracture mechanics, and post-yield fracture...
Abstract
There are many different types of polymeric materials, ranging from glassy to semicrystalline polymers and even blends. Their mechanical properties range from pure elastic with very high strains to fracture (elastomers) to almost pure linear elastic (Hookian behavior) with low strains to fracture (glassy polymers). This article provides an overview of historical development of fracture behavior in polymers. It discusses the processes involved in three fracture test methods for polymers, namely linear elastic fracture mechanics, elastic-plastic fracture mechanics, and post-yield fracture mechanics.
Image
Fracture surface of mechanical test specimen from piping cross. Fracture is...
Available to PurchasePublished: 01 January 2002
Fig. 10 Fracture surface of mechanical test specimen from piping cross. Fracture is intergranular. The coarse grain size of the material is evident. Note 0.75-in. scale.
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Image
Aluminum alloy fracture mechanics test specimen, 6.3 mm (0.25 in.) thick. F...
Available to PurchasePublished: 01 January 2002
Fig. 13 Aluminum alloy fracture mechanics test specimen, 6.3 mm (0.25 in.) thick. Fatigue crack at left of arrows is flat and perpendicular to side surfaces (note absence of beach marks in this laboratory fatigue fracture). Overload fracture to right of arrows has 45° shear lips extending
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Image
A comparison of the mechanical test results, showing a significant improvem...
Available to PurchasePublished: 01 January 2002
Fig. 33 A comparison of the mechanical test results, showing a significant improvement in the parts produced from the new design
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Image
Fracture surface of mechanical test specimen from piping cross. Fracture is...
Available to Purchase
in Failures of Pressure Vessels and Process Piping
> Analysis and Prevention of Component and Equipment Failures
Published: 30 August 2021
Fig. 27 Fracture surface of mechanical test specimen from piping cross. Fracture is intergranular. The coarse grain size of the material is evident (0.75 in. scale)
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Image
Aluminum alloy fracture mechanics test specimen, 6.3 mm (0.25 in.) thick. F...
Available to PurchasePublished: 15 January 2021
Fig. 13 Aluminum alloy fracture mechanics test specimen, 6.3 mm (0.25 in.) thick. Fatigue crack at left of arrows is flat and perpendicular to side surfaces (note absence of beach marks in this laboratory fatigue fracture). Overload fracture to right of arrows has 45° shear lips extending
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Image
A comparison of the mechanical test results, showing a significant improvem...
Available to Purchase
in Failure of Polyacetal Latch Assemblies
> ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories: Household Products and Consumer Goods
Published: 01 June 2019
Fig. 2 A comparison of the mechanical test results, showing a significant improvement in the parts produced from the new design
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Image
Fracture surface of mechanical test specimen from piping cross. Fracture is...
Available to Purchase
in Failure of Piping System Cross by Intergranular Cracking Traceable to Improper Heat Treatment
> ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories: Failure Modes and Mechanisms
Published: 01 June 2019
Fig. 1 Fracture surface of mechanical test specimen from piping cross. Fracture is intergranular. The coarse grain size of the material is evident. Note 0.75-in. scale.
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Book Chapter
Effect of Prior Processing on the Performance of PH 13-8 Mo Stainless Steel Helicopter Components
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001583
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... verification, accessed overall workmanship, and measured the respective surface roughness of the rods in an effort to identify any discrepancies. Next, mechanical testing was performed, followed by optical and electron microscopy, and chemical analysis. Finally, ARL performed laboratory heat treatments...
Abstract
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the root cause of the differences noted in the fatigue test data of main rotor spindle assembly retaining rods fabricated from three different vendors, as part of a Second Source evaluation process. ARL performed dimensional verification, accessed overall workmanship, and measured the respective surface roughness of the rods in an effort to identify any discrepancies. Next, mechanical testing was performed, followed by optical and electron microscopy, and chemical analysis. Finally, ARL performed laboratory heat treatments at the required aging temperature and follow-up mechanical testing.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001668
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
... testing and exemplar tests were performed on the bolt material. Mechanical engineering analysis and leak-before-break criteria were extensively analyzed. Results led to only one possible conclusion: that an explosion occurred within the autoclave. Suggestions for autoclave design are presented as a result...
Abstract
A detailed investigative failure analysis was conducted on an autoclave which blew apart in a furnace for no apparent reason. Bolt failure resulted in separation of the autoclave lid and subsequent destruction of the furnace. Analysis using metallography, fractography, mechanical testing and exemplar tests were performed on the bolt material. Mechanical engineering analysis and leak-before-break criteria were extensively analyzed. Results led to only one possible conclusion: that an explosion occurred within the autoclave. Suggestions for autoclave design are presented as a result of the analysis.
Book Chapter
Brittle Failure of Locking Collar Produced From Rolled 4140 Grade Steel Plate
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.mech.c0047105
EISBN: 978-1-62708-225-9
... microscopy, and mechanical-property analysis) supported the conclusions that the alloy steel plate used in this application contained significant brittle microstructural fibering or banding. This condition produced considerable anisotropy in ductility and toughness as revealed by mechanical testing...
Abstract
The locking collar on a machine failed suddenly when the shaft it restrained was inadvertently subjected to an axial load slightly higher than the allowable working load. The locking collar fractured abruptly, producing four large fragments. This allowed the shaft to be propelled forcefully in the direction of the load, causing substantial damage to other machinery components in the vicinity. The failed component, which was 43 cm (17 in.) in diameter, was machined from 4140 plate and heat treated to 34 to 36 HRC. Analysis (visual inspection, composite micrographs, scanning electron microscopy, and mechanical-property analysis) supported the conclusions that the alloy steel plate used in this application contained significant brittle microstructural fibering or banding. This condition produced considerable anisotropy in ductility and toughness as revealed by mechanical testing. Unfortunately, the potential effects of anisotropy were apparently neglected when this component was designed and manufactured from the plate stock, because the loading was applied in a direction that stressed the weakest planes in the material, that is, a direction normal to the fibering. No recommendations were made.
Book Chapter
Characterization of Plastics in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003525
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
.... It explains the use of mechanical testing in failure analysis and also describes the considerations in the selection and use of test methods. differential scanning calorimetry dynamic mechanical analysis failure analysis Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy mechanical testing molecular weight...
Abstract
This article reviews the analytical techniques most commonly used in plastic component failure analysis. These include the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, thermomechanical analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The descriptions of the analytical techniques are supplemented by a series of case studies that include pertinent visual examination results and the corresponding images that aid in the characterization of the failures. The article describes the methods used for determining the molecular weight of a plastic resin. It explains the use of mechanical testing in failure analysis and also describes the considerations in the selection and use of test methods.
Image
Single-crystal nickel-base superalloy specimens tested at a mechanical stra...
Available to Purchase
in Thermomechanical Fatigue—Mechanisms and Practical Life Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 5 Single-crystal nickel-base superalloy specimens tested at a mechanical strain of 1.3%, a minimum temperature of 550 °C (1020 °F), a maximum temperature of 1050 °C (1920 °F), and 300 s cycles but having different thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) waveforms. (a) Out-of-phase TMF exhibiting
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Image
Mechanical behavior of a plastic tested under different temperatures and st...
Available to Purchase
in Effects of Composition, Processing, and Structure on Properties of Engineering Plastics
> Characterization and Failure Analysis of Plastics
Published: 15 May 2022
Book Chapter
Effects of Prior Processing on the Service Life of an 18% Nickel Maraging Steel Helicopter Landing Mount
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001717
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... to visual inspection/light optical microscopy, metallography, electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, chemical analysis, and mechanical testing. It was observed that the vacuum cadmium coating adjacent to the fracture plane had worn off and corroded in service, thus allowing pitting corrosion...
Abstract
The US Army Research Laboratory performed a failure investigation on a broken main landing gear mount from an AH-64 Apache attack helicopter. A component had failed in flight, and initially prevented the helicopter from safely landing. In order to avoid a catastrophe, the pilot had to perform a low hover maneuver to the maintenance facility, where ground crews assembled concrete blocks at the appropriate height to allow the aircraft to safely touch down. The failed part was fabricated from maraging 300 grade steel (2,068 MPa [300 ksi] ultimate tensile strength), and was subjected to visual inspection/light optical microscopy, metallography, electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, chemical analysis, and mechanical testing. It was observed that the vacuum cadmium coating adjacent to the fracture plane had worn off and corroded in service, thus allowing pitting corrosion to occur. The failure was hydrogen-assisted and was attributed to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and/or corrosion fatigue (CF). Contributing to the failure was the fact that the material grain size was approximately double the required size, most likely caused from higher than nominal temperatures during thermal treatment. These large grains offered less resistance to fatigue and SCC. In addition, evidence of titanium-carbo-nitrides was detected at the grain boundaries of this material that was prohibited according to the governing specification. This phase is formed at higher thermal treatment temperatures (consistent with the large grains) and tends to embrittle the alloy. It is possible that this phase may have contributed to the intergranular attack. Recommendations were offered with respect to the use of a dry film lubricant over the cadmium coated region, and the possibility of choosing an alternative material with a lower notch sensitivity. In addition, the temperature at which this alloy is treated must be monitored to prevent coarse grain growth. As a result of this investigation and in an effort to eliminate future failures, ARL assisted in developing a cadmium brush plating procedure, and qualified two Army maintenance facilities for field repair of these components.
Book Chapter
Characterization of Plastics in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006933
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... spectroscopy, energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The article describes the methods for molecular weight assessment and mechanical testing to evaluate plastics and polymers. The descriptions of the analytical...
Abstract
This article reviews analytical techniques that are most often used in plastic component failure analysis. The description of the techniques is intended to familiarize the reader with the general principles and benefits of the methodologies, namely Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The article describes the methods for molecular weight assessment and mechanical testing to evaluate plastics and polymers. The descriptions of the analytical techniques are supplemented by a series of case studies to illustrate the significance of each method. The case studies also include pertinent visual examination results and the corresponding images that aided in the characterization of the failures.
Book Chapter
Investigation of Cracking and Erratic Behavior of the Uranium-Titanium Alloy
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001685
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... a component occasionally cracks during the quenching process, and when tensile specimens fail prematurely during mechanical testing. These two failures prompted an investigative analysis and a series of studies to determine the causes of the cracking and erratic behavior observed in this alloy. Quench-related...
Abstract
The U-0.8wt%Ti alloy is often used in weapon applications where high strength and fairly good ductility are necessary. Components are immersion quenched in water from the gamma phase to produce a martensitic structure that is amenable to aging. Undesirable conditions occur when a component occasionally cracks during the quenching process, and when tensile specimens fail prematurely during mechanical testing. These two failures prompted an investigative analysis and a series of studies to determine the causes of the cracking and erratic behavior observed in this alloy. Quench-related failures whereby components that cracked either during or immediately after the heat treatment/quenching operation were sectioned for metallographic examination of the microstructure to examine the degree of phase transformation. Examination of premature tensile specimen failures by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray imaging of fracture surfaces revealed pockets of inclusions at the crack origins. In addition, tests were conducted to evaluate the detrimental effects of internal hydrogen on ductility and crack initiation in this alloy.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001817
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
..., visual examination, microscopic examination, chemical analysis, and mechanical tests. The article explains corrosion fatigue of tubing of heat exchangers caused by aggressive environment and cyclic stress. It also discusses the effects of design, welding practices, and elevated temperatures...
Abstract
This article describes the characteristics of tubing of heat exchangers with respect to general corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, selective leaching, and oxygen-cell attack, with examples. It illustrates the examination of failed parts of heat exchangers by using sample selection, visual examination, microscopic examination, chemical analysis, and mechanical tests. The article explains corrosion fatigue of tubing of heat exchangers caused by aggressive environment and cyclic stress. It also discusses the effects of design, welding practices, and elevated temperatures on the failures of heat exchangers.
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