The bolt in a bolt and thimble assembly used to connect a wire rope to a crane hanger bracket was worn excessively. Two worn bolts, one new bolt, and a new thimble were examined. Specifications required the bolts to be made of 4140 steel heat treated to a hardness of 277 to 321 HRB. Thimbles were to be made of cast 8625 steel, but no heat treatment or hardness were specified. Analysis (visual inspection, hardness testing, and metallographic examination) supported the conclusion that the wear was due to strikingly difference hardness measurements in the bolt and thimble. Recommendations included hardening and tempering the bolts to the hardness range of 375 to 430 HRB. The thimbles should be heat treated to a similar microstructure and the same hardness range as those of the bolt. Molybdenum disulfide lubricant can be liberally applied during the initial installation of the bolts. A maintenance lubrication program was not suggested, but galling could be reduced by periodic application of a solid lubricant.

An investigation of wear and failure of babbitt bushes was completed in this study. The results showed that wear at dry sliding of babbitt obtained by plasma spraying was less than that of babbitt in the as-cast state and after a deformation heat treatment. The failure of babbitt bushes was caused by a simultaneous and interrelated exhibition of fatigue and wear processes that depend considerably on cohesion strength between the bush and the bearing base and accumulation of defects on the contact surface between the bush and the shaft.

Friction and wear are important when considering the operation and efficiency of components and mechanical systems. Among the different types and mechanisms of wear, adhesive wear is very serious. Adhesion results in a high coefficient of friction as well as in serious damage to the contacting surfaces. In extreme cases, it may lead to complete prevention of sliding; as such, adhesive wear represents one of the fundamental causes of failure for most metal sliding contacts, accounting for approximately 70% of typical component failures. This article discusses the mechanism and failure modes of adhesive wear including scoring, scuffing, seizure, and galling, and describes the processes involved in classic laboratory-type and standardized tests for the evaluation of adhesive wear. It includes information on standardized galling tests, twist compression, slider-on-flat-surface, load-scanning, and scratch tests. After a discussion on gear scuffing, information on the material-dependent adhesive wear and factors preventing adhesive wear is provided.

This article describes the preliminary stages and general procedures, techniques, and precautions employed in the investigation and analysis of metallurgical failures that occur in service. The most common causes of failure characteristics are described for fracture, corrosion, and wear failures. The article provides information on the synthesis and interpretation of results from the investigation. Finally, it presents key guidelines for conducting a failure analysis.

A mechanical part, which supports the moving part, is termed a mechanical bearing and can be classified into rolling (ball or roller) bearings and sliding bearings. This article discusses the failures of sliding bearings. It first describes the geometry of sliding bearings, next provides an overview of bearing materials, and then presents the various lubrication mechanisms: hydrostatic, hydrodynamic, boundary lubrication, elastohydrodynamic, and squeeze-film lubrication. The article describes the effect of debris and contaminant particles in bearings. The steps involved in failure analysis of sliding bearings are also covered. Finally, the article discusses wear-damage mechanisms from the standpoint of bearing design.

A nylon oil-lubricated driving gear showed pitting upon visual inspection. The pitting produced numerous surface microcracks. Further investigation (visual inspection and 37x images) supported the conclusion that failure occurred in association with large-scale fragmentation (frictional wear). No recommendations were made.

A gear belonging to a pressurized heavy-water reactor refueling machine failed after 10 years in service. The material specified for the gear was a type C90700 bronze. Macroscopic examination focused on three gear teeth that had fractured completely at the roots, and fracture zones were examined using SEM microscopy. Failure of the gears was attributed to heavy wear resulting from misalignment. A lack of adequate lubrication was also noted. Periodic alignment adjustment and lubrication were recommended.

The drive-shaft hanger bearings failed after 300 to 400 h in service. The shaft, supported by labyrinth-sealed single row radial ball bearings of ABEC-1 tolerances, was made of aluminum 2024-T3 tubing (2.5 cm diam and 1.2 mm wall thickness). The bearings were lubricated with a paste-type mineral-oil lubricant (containing molybdenum disulfide and polytetrafluoroethylene particles) or grease conforming to MIL-G-81322 (containing thickening agent and synthetic hydrocarbons) and had two-piece spot-welded retainers. On visual examination, the balls were observed to be embedded in the inner-ring raceway which had been softened by the elevated temperatures reached during the failure. Broken retainers and worn and bent out of shape seals were found. Penetration of gritty particles, water and other corrosive agents and leakage of lubricant out of the bearing permitted by the worn seals was observed. It was concluded that overheating was caused by lubricant flow was permitted by wear of the labyrinth seals. Positive rubbing seals and MIL-G-81322 grease lubricant were found to have longer life than those with the labyrinth seals and mineral-oil-paste lubricant on testing under simulated environmental conditions and were installed as a corrective measure. Importance of dirt free supply and drainage of oil was discussed.

Rolling-element bearings use rolling elements interposed between two raceways, and relative motion is permitted by the rotation of these elements. This article presents an overview of bearing materials, bearing-load ratings, and an examination of failed bearings. Rolling-element bearings are designed on the principle of rolling contact rather than sliding contact; frictional effects, although low, are not negligible, and lubrication is essential. The article lists the typical characteristics and causes of several types of failures. It describes failure by wear, failure by fretting, failure by corrosion, failure by plastic flow, failure by rolling-contact fatigue, and failure by damage. The article discusses the effects of fabrication practices, heat treatment and hardness of bearing components, and lubrication of rolling-element bearings with a few examples.

Factors which may lead to premature roller bearing failure in service include incorrect fitting, excessive pre-load during installation, insufficient or unsuitable lubrication, over-load, impact load vibration, excessive temperature, contamination by abrasive matter, ingress of harmful liquids, and stray electric currents. Most common modes of failure include flaking or pitting (fatigue), cracks or fractures, creep, smearing, wear, softening, indentation, fluting, and corrosion. The modes of failure are illustrated with examples from practice.

The contamination of lubrication with powdered stone resulted in progressive wear of the internal surfaces of a bearing. Because of the motion of rollers, the inner race exhibited an unusual cyclic washboard wear pattern. Because of a lack of bearing conformity, wear progressed into severe coarse-grain spalling.

An aluminum bronze bushing that serves as a guide in a crimping machine began to fail after 50,000 cycles or approximately two weeks of operation. Until then, typical run times had been on the order of months. Although the bushings are replaceable and relatively inexpensive, the cost of downtime adds up quickly while operators troubleshoot and swap out worn components. Initially, the quality of the bushings came into question, but after a detailed analysis of the entire crimping mechanism, several other issues emerged that were not previously considered. As a result, the investigation provides information on not only better materials, but also design changes intended to reduce wear and increase service life.

This article focuses on the types of activities required for the resolution of wear problems. These include examining and characterizing the tribosystem; characterizing and modeling the wear process; obtaining and evaluating wear data; and evaluating and verifying the solution.

This article considers the main characteristics of wear mechanisms and how they can be identified. Some identification examples are reported, with the warning that this task can be difficult because of the presence of disturbing factors such as contaminants or possible additional damage of the worn products after the tribological process. Then, the article describes some examples of wear processes, considering possible transitions and/or interactions of the mechanism of fretting wear, rolling-sliding wear, abrasive wear, and solid-particle erosion wear. The role of tribological parameters on the material response is presented using the wear map concept, which is very useful and informative in several respects. The article concludes with guidelines for the selection of suitable surface treatments to avoid wear failures.

Plastics or polymers are used in a variety of engineering and nonengineering applications where they are subjected to surface damage and wear. This article discusses the classification of polymer wear mechanisms based on the methodologies of defining the types of wear. The first classification is based on the two-term model that divides wear mechanisms into interfacial and bulk or cohesive. The second is based on the perceived wear mechanism. The third classification is specific to polymers and draws the distinction based on mechanical properties of polymers. In this classification, wear study is separated as elastomers, thermosets, glassy thermoplastics, and semicrystalline thermoplastics. The article describes the effects of environment and lubricant on the wear failures of polymers. It presents a case study on nylon as a tribological material. The article explains the wear failure of an antifriction bearing, a nylon driving gear, and a polyoxymethylene gear wheel.

Randomly selected dictating-machine drive mechanisms, which contained small ball bearings, were found to exhibit unacceptable fluctuations in drive output during the early stages of production. It was indicated that the bearing raceways were being true brinelled before or during installation of the bearings. The preinstallation practices and the procedures for installing the bearings were carefully studied. It was revealed that during one preinstallation step, the lubricant applied by the bearing manufacturer was removed and the bearing was relubricated with another type of lubricant prior to which the bearings were ultrasonically cleaned in trichloroethylene to ensure extreme cleanness. Equally spaced indentations resembling true brinelling were revealed by careful examination of the bearing raceways. It was concluded that the ultrasonic energy transmitted to the balls brinelled the raceways enough to cause fluctuations in machine output. Solvent-vapor cleaning was employed as a corrective technique for removing bearing lubricant.

In an industrial application, 24 speed-increaser gearboxes were used to transmit 258 kW (346 hp) and increase speed from 55 to 375 rev/min. The gears were parallel shaft, single helical, carburized, and ground. The splash lubrication system used a mineral oil without antiscuff additives with ISO 100 viscosity. After about 250 h of operation, two gearboxes failed by bending fatigue. Investigation showed the primary failure mode was scuffing, and the earlier bending fatigue failures were caused by dynamic loads generated by the worn gear teeth. Testing of a prototype gearbox showed that the failure resulted from several interrelated factors: the lubricant viscosity was too low causing high temperatures; no antiscuff additives were used; a gearbox designed as a speed reducer was used as a speed increaser (the designer selected a long-addendum tooth for the pinion); the gear teeth were not provided with a coating or plating to ease running-in; and the gears were not run-in properly under reduced loads. The case suggests that such gear failures can be avoided if designers and operators recognize that the lubricant is an important component of a gearbox and appreciate that gear design requires the consideration and control of many interrelated factors.

This article discusses the classification of sliding bearings and describes the major groups of soft metal bearing materials: babbitts, copper-lead bearing alloys, bronze, and aluminum alloys. It provides a discussion on the methods for fluid-film lubrication in bearings. The article presents the variables of interest for a rotating shaft and the load-carrying capacity and surface roughness of bearings. Grooves and depressions are often provided in bearing surfaces to supply or feed lubricant to the load-carrying regions. The article explains the effect of contaminants in bearings and presents the steps for failure analysis of sliding bearings. It also reviews the factors responsible for bearing failure with examples.

Rolling-contact fatigue (RCF) is a surface damage process due to the repeated application of stresses when the surfaces of two bodies roll on each other. This article briefly describes the various surface cracks caused by manufacturing processing faults or blunt impact loads on ceramic balls surfaces. It discusses the propagation of fatigue cracks involved in rolling contacts. The characteristics of various types of RCF test machines are summarized. The article concludes with a discussion on the various failure modes of silicon nitride in rolling contact. These include the spalling fatigue failure, the delamination failure, and the rolling-contact wear.

This article first reviews variations within the most common types of gears, namely spur, helical, worm, and straight and spiral bevel. It then provides information on gear tooth contact and gear metallurgy. This is followed by sections describing the important points of gear lubrication, the measurement of the backlash, and the necessary factors for starting the failure analysis. Next, the article explains various gear failure causes, including wear, scuffing, Hertzian fatigue, cracking, fracture, and bending fatigue, and finally presents examples of gear and reducer failure analysis.