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iron-carbon phase diagram
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Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.petrol.c9001638
EISBN: 978-1-62708-228-0
... Nickel 30.0–35.0 31.2 Chromium 19.0–23.0 19.6 Iron 39.5 min 46.7 Carbon 0.05–0.10 0.099 Aluminum 0.15–0.60 0.68 Titanium 0.15–0.60 0.32 Several cross sections of the damaged area as well as an unaffected area were examined metallographically using an optical microscope...
Abstract
An Incoloy 800H (UNS N08810) transfer line on the outlet of an ethane-cracking furnace failed during decoking of the furnace tubes after nine years in service. A metallographic examination using optical and scanning electron microscopy as well as energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy revealed that the failure was due to sulfidation. The source of the sulfur in the furnace effluent was either dimethyl disulfide, injected into the furnace feed to prevent coke formation and carburization of the furnace tubes, or contamination of the feed with sulfur bearing oil.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003551
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
..., it is possible to explain why and how redox variations are harmful to any refractory containing iron oxides as impurities; how the reduction of magnesia to magnesium gas and the reoxidation to MgO can be used with great advantage for MgO-carbon bricks (a destruction-reconstruction mechanism that leads...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on the structural ceramics used in gas turbine components, the automotive and aerospace industries, or as heat exchangers in various segments of the chemical and power generation industries. It covers the fundamental aspects of chemical corrosion and describes the corrosion resistance characteristics of specific classes of refractories and structural ceramics. The article also examines the prevention strategies that minimize corrosion failures of both classes of materials.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003510
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... temperature and the M s may be determined in order to construct a CCT diagram, such as the one shown for an unalloyed carbon steel (AISI 1045) in Fig. 2 . Continuous cooling transformation curves provide data on the temperatures for each phase transformation, the amount of transformation product obtained...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the effects of various material- and process-related parameters on residual stress, distortion control, cracking, and microstructure/property relationships as they relate to various types of failure. It discusses phase transformations that occur during heat treating and describes the metallurgical sources of stress and distortion during heating and cooling. The article summarizes the effect of materials and the quench-process design on distortion and cracking and details the effect of cooling characteristics on residual stress and distortion. It also provides information on the methods of minimizing distortion and tempering. The article concludes with a discussion on the effect of heat treatment processes on microstructure/property-related failures.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001489
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
.... Salter W.J.M. and Pickering F.B. : J. Iron Steel Inst. , 1969 , pp. 207 and 992 . 9. Dahl W. : Stahl Eisen. , 1966 , pp. 86 and 796 . 10. Baker T.J. and Charles J.A. : J. Iron Steel Inst. , 1972 , pp. 210 and 680 . 11. Johnson R.F...
Abstract
The cause of the fatigue failure in the retaining ring of the compressor region of an aero-engine turbine was found to be the presence of a high concentration of nonmetallic inclusions. The results of chemical analysis were used to estimate the phases present. The most frequently observed inclusions were spinel solid solutions of the type MO middot; N2O3, where M = Fe, Mn, or Mg and N = Cr or Al. The detrimental inclusions were corundum, calcium aluminates, cristobalite, and silicates. The most detrimental phases were traced on the surfaces of the specimens fractured using impact loading; the comparison is being made with the polished surfaces and the tensile specimen fracture surfaces. The inclusions in the failed retaining ring were compared with the ones in a similar component obtained from a used engine. In the case of the latter, a large number of fine and elongated (Mn, Cr, Fe)S inclusions were present along with spinels. The nondeformable, rigid oxide particles are considered more undesirable than the sulfides as far as fatigue life of the component is concerned. It has been reported that the presence of sulfides may eliminate the stresses due to oxides.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.petrol.c0048808
EISBN: 978-1-62708-228-0
... amounts, nor was oxygen, except near a filled branch crack that also showed small amounts of carbon. Phosphorus was absent, and iron, chromium, and nickel were present in amounts commensurate with the weld material. Approximately 4% S was present in the filled branch crack, and the precipitates contained...
Abstract
The welds joining the liner and shell of a fluid catalytic cracking unit failed. The shell was made of ASTM A515 carbon steel welded with E7018 filler metal. The liner was made of type 405 stainless steel and was plug welded to the shell using ER309 and ER310 stainless steel filler metal. Fine cracks starting inside the weld zone and spreading outward through the weld and toward the surface were observed during examination. Decarburization and graphitization of the carbon steel at the interface was noted. The high carbon level was found to allow martensite to form eventually. The structure was found to be austenitic in the area where the grain-boundary precipitates appeared heaviest. The composition of the precipitates was analyzed using an electron microprobe to reveal presence of sulfur. Microstructural changes in the weld alloy at the interface were interpreted to be caused by dilution of the alloy and the presence of sulfur caused hot shortness. The necessary internal stress to produce extensive cracking was produced by the differential thermal expansion of the carbon and stainless steels. Periodic careful gouging of the affected areas followed by repair welding was recommended.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001133
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
..., % Implant ASTM F-75 requirements Chromium 27.9 27.0–30.0 Molybdenum 6.11 5.0–7.0 Nickel 0.06 1.0 (max) Iron 0.24 0.75 (max) Carbon 0.245 0.35 (max) Silicon 0.68 1.0 (max) Manganes 0.32 1.0 (max) Cobalt … bal Quality control includes tensile testing...
Abstract
A femoral knee implant was returned to the casting vendor for analysis after exhibiting poor bond strength between the cast substrate and a sintered porous coating. Both the coating and the substrate were manufactured from a cobalt-chromium-molybdenum alloy. Metallographic analysis indicated that a decarburized layer existed on all surfaces of the casting, which prevented bonding during the sintering thermal cycle. Bead-to-bead bonding within the coating appeared sufficient, and no decarburized layer was present on the bead surfaces. It was concluded that the decarburization did not occur during the sintering thermal cycle. It was recommended that the prosthetic manufacturer investigate atmosphere controls for all thermal cycles prior to coating.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003517
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... of carbide in plain low-carbon steel is as follows. In low-carbon steel before service, the carbide is present as pearlite, which consists of alternate lamellae of iron carbide and ferrite. Following heating, the pearlite starts to spheroidize, sometimes known as divorce of pearlite, and continued heating...
Abstract
This article focuses on the life assessment methods for elevated-temperature failure mechanisms and metallurgical instabilities that reduce life or cause loss of function or operating time of high-temperature components, namely, gas turbine blade, and power plant piping and tubing. The article discusses metallurgical instabilities of steel-based alloys and nickel-base superalloys. It provides information on several life assessment methods, namely, the life fraction rule, parameter-based assessments, the thermal-mechanical fatigue, coating evaluations, hardness testing, microstructural evaluations, the creep cavitation damage assessment, the oxide-scale-based life prediction, and high-temperature crack growth methods.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001322
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... of SAE-192 carbon steel contains ferrite and pearlite phases. However, the microstructure of tube 2 in the fracture area (as well as at some distance from the rupture), consisted of ferrite with grain boundary cementite or spheroidal carbides (Fe 3 C) and no pearlite phases. Occurrence...
Abstract
A failed SAE-192 carbon steel tube from a 6.2-MPa (900-psig), 200-Mg/h (180-ton/h) capacity refinery boiler was analyzed to determine its failure mode. Optical and SEM examination results were combined with knowledge of the boiler operating conditions to conclude that the failure was hydrogen-induced. The hydrogen was probably generated by the steam-iron reaction. The source of steam on the flue gas side could be traced to a cracked fillet weld in the boiler The failure mode was unusual in that the attack was found to originate from the flue gas side of the tube rather than the steam side.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001609
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... Feedwater Economizer Performance Test Results and Metallographic Examination Discussion Conclusions Acknowledgments References References 1. Streicher M.A. : “ The Role of Carbon, Nitrogen, and Heat Treatment in the Dissolution of Iron-Chromium Alloys in Acids ,” Corrosion...
Abstract
Alloy 430 stainless steel tube-to-header welds failed in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) within one year of commissioning. The HRSG was in a combined cycle, gas-fired, combustion turbine electric power plant. Alloy 430, a 17% Cr ferritic stainless steel, was selected because of its resistance to chloride and sulfuric acid dewpoint corrosion under conditions potentially present in the HRSG low-pressure feedwater economizer. Intergranular corrosion and cracking were found in the weld metal and heat-affected zones. The hardness in these regions was up to 35 HRC, and the weld had received a postweld heat treatment (PWHT). Metallographic examination revealed that the corroded areas contained undertempered martensite. Fully tempered weld areas with a hardness of 93 HRB were not attacked. No evidence of corrosion fatigue was found. Uneven temperature control during PWHT was the most likely cause of failure.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006804
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... and Technology , 2nd ed. , Academic Press , 1979 , p 315 7. Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels , Vol 1 , Metals Handbook , 9th ed. , American Society for Metals , 1978 , p 425 8. French D.N. , Failures of Boilers and Related Equipment , Failure Analysis and Prevention , Vol...
Abstract
This article addresses the effects of damage to equipment and structures due to explosions (blast), fire, and heat as well as the methodologies that are used by investigating teams to assess the damage and remaining life of the equipment. It discusses the steps involved in preliminary data collection and preparation. Before discussing the identification, evaluation, and use of explosion damage indicators, the article describes some of the more common events that are considered in incident investigations. The range of scenarios that can occur during explosions and the characteristics of each are also covered. In addition, the article primarily discusses level 1 and level 2 of fire and heat damage assessment and provides information on level 3 assessment.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001714
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
... of the pipe surface. The period of time which is needed for reducing the chromia layer is called incubation time. After the chromia layer diminishes, carburization process or metal dusting attack starts. This process continues by diffusion of carbon on the pipe and forms (chromium, iron) carbide...
Abstract
In a HyL III heat exchanger's radiant pipes, metal dusting reduced the pipe thickness from 8.5 to 3 mm in just nine months, leaving craters on the inner surface. The pipes are fabricated from HK 40 alloy. The heated gas (400 to 800 deg C) consisted of CO, CO2, and H2, with a 4:1 CO/CO2 ratio. Metallographic investigations revealed that the surface of the attacked pipes consisted of (Cr, Fe) carbide. The metal dusting was the result of a decomposition process (CO to CO2 + C) that deposited C on the pipe surface. Because of the high temperature, the C subsequently diffused through the surface oxide layer (Cr2O3), triggering a succession of reactions that led to pitting and the formation of craters.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001473
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... reduction, double helical gearing and it had operated satisfactorily for five years. The gearbox casing was a grey iron casting and the main gear wheel, the remains of which can be seen in Figure 1 , consisted of a cast iron, double-spoked wheel, on to the periphery of which was shrunk two steel rims...
Abstract
A combination of adverse factors was present in the disruption of a turbo-alternator gearbox. The major cause was the imposition of a gross overload far in excess of that for which the gearbox was designed. The contributory factors were a rim material (EN9 steel) that was inherently notch-sensitive and liable to rupture in a brittle manner. Discontinuities were present in the rims formed by the drain holes drilled in their abutting faces, and possibly enhanced by the stress-raising effect of microcracks in the smeared metal at their surfaces It is probable that the load reached a value in excess of the yield point within the delay time of the material so when the fracture was initiated, it was preceded by several microcracks giving rise to the propagation of a brittle fracture.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001681
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... ( 1962 ). 21. Rivlin V. G. , “6: Critical Evaluation of Constitution of Cobalt-Chromium-Iron and Cobalt-Iron-Nickel Systems” , Int. Metals Rev. , Vol. 26 , p. 269 ( 1981 ). 10.1179/imtr.1981.26.1.269 22. El Dahshan M. E. , Whittle D. P. and Stringer J...
Abstract
A microstructural analysis has been made of a burner nozzle removed from service in a coal gasification plant. The nozzle was a casting of a Co-29wt%Cr-19wt%Fe alloy. Extensive hot corrosion had occurred on the surface. There was penetration along grain boundaries, and corrosion products in these regions were particularly rich in S, and also contained Al, Si, O, and Cl. The grain boundaries contained Cr-rich particles which were probably Cr23-C6 type carbides. In the matrix, corrosion occurred between the Widmanstatten plates. Particles were found between these plates, most of which were rich in Cr and O, and probably were Cr2-O3 oxides. Other matrix particles were found which were rich in Al, O, and S. The corrosion was related to these grain boundary and matrix particles, which either produced a Cr-depleted zone around them or were themselves attacked.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006828
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... to join metals to ceramics. Procedures for brazing various materials such as cast irons, steels, stainless steels, heat-resistant alloys, aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, copper alloys, reactive and refractory metals, and carbon and graphite are described in Welding, Brazing, and Soldering , Volume 6...
Abstract
The various methods of furnace, torch, induction, resistance, dip, and laser brazing are used to produce a wide range of highly reliable brazed assemblies. However, imperfections that can lead to braze failure may result if proper attention is not paid to the physical properties of the material, joint design, prebraze cleaning, brazing procedures, postbraze cleaning, and quality control. Factors that must be considered include brazeability of the base metals; joint design and fit-up; filler-metal selection; prebraze cleaning; brazing temperature, time, atmosphere, or flux; conditions of the faying surfaces; postbraze cleaning; and service conditions. This article focuses on the advantages, limitations, sources of failure, and anomalies resulting from the brazing process. It discusses the processes involved in the testing and inspection required of the braze joint or assembly.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001490
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
...-aluminum layer was found, indicating that aluminum containing alloys had been melted in this pot. The diffusion of aluminum into the steel apparently increased the chemical potential of carbon in iron to the extent that it was swept ahead of the aluminum alloy zone. The interface between the iron-aluminum...
Abstract
A steel pot used as crucible in a magnesium alloy foundry developed a leak that resulted in a fire and caused extensive damage. Hypotheses as to the cause of the leak included a defect in the pot, overuse, overheating, and poor foundry practices. Scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, optical microscopy, and x-ray microanalysis in conjunction with dimensional analysis, phase diagrams and thermodynamics considerations were employed to evaluate the various hypotheses. All evidence pointed to an oxide mass in the area where the hole developed, likely introduced during the steelmaking process.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003556
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Acceptors Other electron acceptors involved in microbial metabolism include oxygen, nitrate, iron (III), and carbon dioxide. All of these species could theoretically be involved as the electron acceptor, X , in the corrosion of metals ( Eq 1 ) but evidence for direct MIC based on other electron...
Abstract
This article focuses on the mechanisms of microbially induced or influenced corrosion (MIC) of metallic materials as an introduction to the recognition, management, and prevention of microbiological corrosion failures in piping, tanks, heat exchangers, and cooling towers. It discusses the degradation of various protective systems, such as corrosion inhibitors and lubricants. The article describes the failure analysis of steel, iron, copper, aluminum, and their alloys. It also discusses the probes available to monitor conditions relevant to MIC in industrial systems and the sampling and analysis of conditions usually achieved by the installation of removable coupons in the target system. The article also explains the prevention and control strategies of MIC in industrial systems.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.rail.c9001665
EISBN: 978-1-62708-231-0
... 570 C, the scale formed on iron in air consists of wustite (FeO), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ) and hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ). Below 570 C, only magnetite and hematite are formed since wustite decomposes into magnetite and α-iron by a eutectoid reaction at 570 C. Thus, from a study of phases present in the scale...
Abstract
Following a freight train derailment, part of a fractured side frame was retained for study because a portion of its fracture surface exhibited a rock candy appearance and black scale. It was suspected of having failed, thereby precipitating the derailment. Metallography, scanning electron microscopy, EDXA, and x-ray mapping were used to study the steel in the vicinity of this part of the fracture surface. It was found to be contaminated with copper. Debye-Scherrer x-ray diffraction patterns obtained from the scale showed that it consisted of magnetite and hematite. It was concluded that some copper was accidentally left in the mold when the casting was poured. Liquid copper, carrying with it oxygen in solution, penetrated the austenite grain boundaries as the steel cooled. The oxygen reacted with the steel producing a network of scale outlining the austenite grain structure. When the casting fractured as a result of the derailment, the fracture followed the scale in the contaminated region thus creating the “rock candy” fracture.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006816
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... decarburization) followed by a reduced carbon layer (partial decarburization), or decarb may exist as just a reduced carbon area at the surface, with the carbon increasing to the base carbon level of the steel or cast iron. This reduced carbon area is called the decarburized depth. Decarburization...
Abstract
This article introduces some of the general sources of heat treating problems with particular emphasis on problems caused by the actual heat treating process and the significant thermal and transformation stresses within a heat treated part. It addresses the design and material factors that cause a part to fail during heat treatment. The article discusses the problems associated with heating and furnaces, quenching media, quenching stresses, hardenability, tempering, carburizing, carbonitriding, and nitriding as well as potential stainless steel problems and problems associated with nonferrous heat treatments. The processes involved in cold working of certain ferrous and nonferrous alloys are also covered.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006783
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... illustrated in binary alloys that contain phases of differing corrosion potentials. The grain in one phase becomes anodic to the grain in the second phase in the microstructure, thus producing an electrolytic cell when the proper electrolyte is present. Another illustration is ductile cast iron, where...
Abstract
Corrosion is the electrochemical reaction of a material and its environment. This article addresses those forms of corrosion that contribute directly to the failure of metal parts or that render them susceptible to failure by some other mechanism. Various forms of corrosion covered are galvanic corrosion, uniform corrosion, pitting, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, selective leaching, and velocity-affected corrosion. In particular, mechanisms of corrosive attack for specific forms of corrosion, as well as evaluation and factors contributing to these forms, are described. These reviews of corrosion forms and mechanisms are intended to assist the reader in developing an understanding of the underlying principles of corrosion; acquiring such an understanding is the first step in recognizing and analyzing corrosion-related failures and in formulating preventive measures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006766
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... procedures. For instance, in the case of carbon steel, iron produces a rich and intense spectrum that can interfere with the analytes of interest. Careful matching of calibration standards to the elemental matrix of the specimen and the acid solvent is critical in order to produce valid data. Proper...
Abstract
Identification of alloys using quantitative chemical analysis is an essential step during a metallurgical failure analysis process. There are several methods available for quantitative analysis of metal alloys, and the analyst should carefully approach selection of the method used. The choice of appropriate analytical techniques is determined by the specific chemical information required, the condition of the sample, and any limitations imposed by interested parties. This article discusses some of the commonly used quantitative chemical analysis techniques for metals. The discussion covers the operating principles, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of optical emission spectroscopy (OES), inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), X-ray spectroscopy, and ion chromatography (IC). In addition, information on combustion analysis and inert gas fusion analysis is provided.