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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006801
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... Abstract Sheet forming failures divert resources from normal business activities and have significant bottom-line impact. This article focuses on the formation, causes, and limitations of four primary categories of sheet forming failures, namely necks, fractures/splits/cracks, wrinkles/loose...
Abstract
Sheet forming failures divert resources from normal business activities and have significant bottom-line impact. This article focuses on the formation, causes, and limitations of four primary categories of sheet forming failures, namely necks, fractures/splits/cracks, wrinkles/loose metal, and springback/dimensional. It discusses the processes involved in analytical tools that aid in characterizing the state of a formed part. In addition, information on draw panel analysis and troubleshooting of sheet forming failures is also provided.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of Admiralty Brass Condenser Tubes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001044
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... water boxes, each containing two pairs of Muntz metal (UNS C28000) tube sheets. Each tube sheet pair contained 5622 25 mm (1 in.) OD × 19 BWG × 14 m (45 ft) UNS C44300 inhibited admiralty brass tubes (total of 44,976 tubes) and 1102 25 mm (1 in.) OD × 19 BWG × 14 m (45 ft) UNS C71500 70Cu-30Ni tubes...
Abstract
Inhibited admiralty brass (UNS C44300) condenser tubes used in a natural-gas-fired cogeneration plant failed during testing. Two samples, one from a leaking tube and the other from an on leaking tube, were examined. Chemical analyses were conducted on the tubes and corrosion deposits. Stress-corrosion cracking was shown to have caused the failure. The most probable corrosive was ammonia or an ammonium compound in the presence of oxygen and water. All of the tubes were replaced.
Book Chapter
Function and Properties Factors in Plastics Processing Selection
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006935
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... Cold press … 40 … + to − 11.0 1.5 High Low (a) SMC, sheet molding compound; HMC, high-strength sheet molding compound; BMC, bulk molding compound; ZMC, Z molding compound Process Effects on Molecular Orientation Polymer molecules in the melt form flow in a non-Newtonian manner...
Abstract
Manufacturing process selection is a critical step in plastic product design. The article provides an overview of the functional requirements that a part must fulfil before process selection is attempted. A brief discussion on the effects of individual thermoplastic and thermosetting processes on plastic parts and the material properties is presented. The article presents process effects on molecular orientation. It also illustrates the thinking that goes into the selection of processes for size, shape, and design factors. Finally, the article describes how various processes handle reinforcement.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006868
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... molds are most often granulated and reused in the feed stream to the injection unit. Scrap from die-cut sheet forms, such as food storage bags, or thermoformed thin gauge articles, such as coffee cup tops, are again salvaged in-line and routed to granulators to be prepared for reintroduction in the feed...
Abstract
This article presents the benefits of selecting plastics for products to be manufactured. It discusses the four key considerations for plastic part design: material, process, tooling, and design. The article provides a detailed discussion of the development sequence for plastic parts. The basis for the development sequence is twofold: first, to create the best solution for the application, and second, to minimize potential project risks through careful and thoughtful work habits.
Book Chapter
Mechanisms and Appearances of Ductile and Brittle Fracture in Metals
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003538
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
..., there is evidence of plastic deformation and failure by microvoid coalescence (MVC) ductile tearing. However, exceptions to this fracture progression mode have been reported. One is formation of a specimen-scale shear band (sometimes associated with void sheet formation at the microscale). One set of circumstances...
Abstract
This article provides a description of the microscale models and mechanisms for deformation and fracture. Macroscale and microscale appearances of ductile and brittle fracture are discussed for various specimen geometries and loading conditions. The article reviews the general geometric factors and materials aspects that influence the stress-strain behavior and fracture of ductile metals. It highlights fractures arising from manufacturing imperfections and stress raisers. The article presents a root cause failure analysis case history to illustrate some of the fractography concepts.
Book Chapter
Mechanisms and Appearances of Ductile and Brittle Fracture in Metals
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006775
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
..., there is evidence of plastic deformation and failure by microvoid coalescence (MVC) ductile tearing. However, exceptions to this fracture progression mode have been reported. One is formation of a specimen-scale shear band (sometimes associated with void sheet formation at the microscale). One set of circumstances...
Abstract
This article focuses on characterizing the fracture-surface appearance at the microscale and contains some discussion on both crack nucleation and propagation mechanisms that cause the fracture appearance. It begins with a discussion on microscale models and mechanisms for deformation and fracture. Next, the mechanisms of void nucleation and void coalescence are briefly described. Macroscale and microscale appearances of ductile and brittle fracture are then discussed for various specimen geometries (smooth cylindrical and prismatic) and loading conditions (e.g., tension compression, bending, torsion). Finally, the factors influencing the appearance of a fracture surface and various imperfections or stress raisers are described, followed by a root-cause failure analysis case history to illustrate some of these fractography concepts.
Book
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.9781627081801
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
Book Chapter
Abbreviations and Symbols: Failure Analysis and Prevention
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006548
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... temperature at which austenite begins to form on heating Ac3 temperature at which transformation of ferrite to austenite is completed on heating ABS acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene ACI Alloy Casting Institute AES Auger electron spectroscopy AGMA American Gear Manufacturers Asso- ciation AISI American Iron...
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006865
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... monomer units exhibit strong primary covalent bonds that form chains, which are also frequently linked by weaker secondary bonds (i.e., hydrogen bonding and van der Waals force). Polymers may also exhibit limited crystallinity, which occurs when the polymer chains arrange themselves into an orderly...
Abstract
This article reviews the mechanical behavior and fracture characteristics that discriminate structural polymers from metals, including plastic deformation. It provides overviews of crack propagation and fractography. The article presents the distinction between ductile and brittle fracture modes. Several case studies of field failure in various polymers are also presented to illustrate the applicability of available analytical tools in conjunction with an understanding of failure mechanisms.
Book Chapter
Fatigue Fracture Appearances
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003539
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... separate the initiation stage into ( Ref 3 ): Accumulation of local irreversible plastic deformation Creation of microscopic flaws Growth and coalescence of flaws to form one or more macroscopic cracks Careful laboratory study of unnotched high-purity metals and alloys has shown...
Abstract
This article commences with a summary of fatigue processes and mechanisms. It focuses on fractography of fatigue. Characteristic fatigue fracture features that can be discerned visually or under low magnification are described. Typical microscopic features observed on structural metals are presented subsequently, followed by a brief discussion of fatigue in nonmetals. The article reviews the various macroscopic and microscopic features to characterize the history and growth rate of fatigue in metals. It concludes with a description of fatigue of polymers and composites.
Book
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.9781627083959
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006776
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... ): Accumulation of local irreversible plastic deformation Creation of microscopic flaws Growth and coalescence of flaws to form one or more macroscopic cracks Careful laboratory study of unnotched high-purity metals and alloys has shown that repeated plastic deformation can result in localization...
Abstract
Fatigue failure of engineering components and structures results from progressive fracture caused by cyclic or fluctuating loads. Fatigue is an important potential cause of mechanical failure, because most engineering components or structures are or can be subjected to cyclic loads during their lifetime. This article focuses on fractography of fatigue. It provides an abbreviated summary of fatigue processes and mechanisms: fatigue crack initiation, fatigue crack propagation, and final fracture,. Characteristic fatigue fracture features that can be discerned visually or under low magnification are then described. Typical microscopic features observed on structural metals are presented subsequently, followed by a brief discussion on fatigue in polymers and polymer-matrix composites.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006785
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... Abstract Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of corrosion and produces wastage in that the stress-corrosion cracks penetrate the cross-sectional thickness of a component over time and deteriorate its mechanical strength. Although there are factors common among the different forms...
Abstract
Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of corrosion and produces wastage in that the stress-corrosion cracks penetrate the cross-sectional thickness of a component over time and deteriorate its mechanical strength. Although there are factors common among the different forms of environmentally induced cracking, this article deals only with SCC of metallic components. It begins by presenting terminology and background of SCC. Then, the general characteristics of SCC and the development of conditions for SCC as well as the stages of SCC are covered. The article provides a brief overview of proposed SCC propagation mechanisms. It discusses the processes involved in diagnosing SCC and the prevention and mitigation of SCC. Several engineering alloys are discussed with respect to their susceptibility to SCC. This includes a description of some of the environmental and metallurgical conditions commonly associated with the development of SCC, although not all, and numerous case studies.
Book Chapter
Failures Related to Metal Additive Manufacturing
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006838
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... MANUFACTURING (AM) refers to a group of free-form fabrication technologies that incrementally build up a solid part by computer-controlled deposition of material from a digital solid model. The technology is an outgrowth and broadening of rapid prototyping methods that were developed in the 1980s to accelerate...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of metal additive manufacturing (AM) processes and describes sources of failures in metal AM parts. It focuses on metal AM product failures and potential solutions related to design considerations, metallurgical characteristics, production considerations, and quality assurance. The emphasis is on the design and metallurgical aspects for the two main types of metal AM processes: powder-bed fusion (PBF) and directed-energy deposition (DED). The article also describes the processes involved in binder jet sintering, provides information on the design and fabrication sources of failure, addresses the key factors in production and quality control, and explains failure analysis of AM parts.
Book Chapter
Fracture Mechanics Testing of Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006910
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... (elastomers) to almost pure linear elastic (Hookian behavior) with low strains to fracture (glassy polymers). The majority of polymers have properties somewhere between these two extremes. Virtually all polymeric materials show some form of inelastic behavior ( Ref 1 , 2 ). Elastomers exhibit hysteresis...
Abstract
There are many different types of polymeric materials, ranging from glassy to semicrystalline polymers and even blends. Their mechanical properties range from pure elastic with very high strains to fracture (elastomers) to almost pure linear elastic (Hookian behavior) with low strains to fracture (glassy polymers). This article provides an overview of historical development of fracture behavior in polymers. It discusses the processes involved in three fracture test methods for polymers, namely linear elastic fracture mechanics, elastic-plastic fracture mechanics, and post-yield fracture mechanics.
Book Chapter
Characterization of Thermosetting Resins and Polymers
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006924
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... temperature, resulting in a viscous liquid that can be formed into useful shapes by means of heat and pressure. Examples of thermoplastic processing include injection molding, extrusion, blow molding, and thermoforming. Upon cooling, the polymer either crystallizes or vitrifies to a glassy polymer (i.e...
Abstract
This article discusses the most common thermal analysis methods for thermosetting resins. These include differential scanning calorimetry, thermomechanical analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The article also discusses the characterization of uncured thermosetting resins as well as the curing process. Then, the techniques to characterize the physical properties of cured thermosets and composites are presented. Several examples of stress-strain curves are shown for thermosets and thermoplastic polymers.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006923
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
.... Any T m given is for remaining crystalline portion or for crystalline version. (b) Degradation temperature ( T d ) = 500 °C (930 °F). R contains at least one aromatic ring. (c) Based on private communication, American Cyanamid Co. Source: Ref 1 – 3 and product information sheets...
Abstract
This article discusses the thermal properties of engineering plastics and elastomers with respect to chemical composition, chain configuration, and base polymer conformation as determined by thermal analysis. It describes the processing of base polymers with or without additives and their response to chemical, physical, and mechanical stresses whether as an unfilled, shaped article or as a component of a composite structure. It summarizes the basic thermal properties of thermoplastics and thermosets, including thermal conductivity, temperature resistance, thermal expansion, specific heat, and glass transition temperature. It also provides information on polyimide and bismaleimide resin systems. Representative examples of different types of engineering thermoplastics are discussed primarily in terms of structure and thermal properties.
Book Chapter
Fracture Appearance and Mechanisms of Deformation and Fracture
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003537
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... components, which is addressed in detail in Ref 1 , is not covered in this Volume. Tables 1 and 2 list some general types of macroscale and microscale fractographic features, which are described in more detail in this article. In summary form, the following are key features in distinguishing between...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of fractography and explains how it is used in failure analysis. It reviews the basic types of fracture processes, namely, ductile, brittle, fatigue, and creep, principally in terms of fracture appearances, such as microstructure. The article also describes the general features of fatigue fractures in terms of crack initiation and fatigue crack propagation.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003501
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... process. Simply restated, the primary measure of a successful design process is foreseeing and avoiding failure. Design generally requires specific engineering expertise and is performed by a wide variety of engineering disciplines, such as: Civil engineers design large structural forms...
Abstract
Materials selection is an important engineering function in both the design and failure analysis of components. This article briefly reviews the general aspects of materials selection as a concern in proactive failure prevention during design and as a possible root cause of failed parts. It discusses the overall concept of design and describes the role of the materials engineer in the design and materials selection process. The article highlights the significance of materials selection in both the prevention and analysis of failures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006800
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... process. Simply restated, the primary measure of a successful design process is foreseeing and avoiding failure. Design generally requires specific engineering expertise and is performed by a wide variety of engineering disciplines, such as: Civil engineers design large structural forms...
Abstract
Materials selection is closely related to the objectives of failure analysis and prevention. This article briefly reviews the general aspects of materials selection as a concern in both proactive failure prevention during design and as a possible root cause of failed parts. Coverage is more conceptual, with general discussions on the following topics: design and failure prevention, materials selection in design, materials selection for failure prevention, and materials selection and failure analysis. Because materials selection is just one part of the design process, the overall concept of design is discussed. The article also describes the role of the materials engineer in the design and materials selection process. It provides information on the significance of materials selection in both the prevention and analysis of failures.
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