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Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.conag.c0047352
EISBN: 978-1-62708-221-1
... Handbook , ASM International , 2002 , p 671 – 699 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003543 The chemical composition of the liners was reported to be within specifications for high-chromium white cast iron. The two broken liners were sand blasted for visual inspection and subsequent metallography...
Abstract
Two broken ball-mill liners from a copper-mine ore operation were submitted for failure analysis. These liners failed prematurely, having reached less than 20% of their expected life. The chemical composition of the liners was within specifications for high-chromium white cast iron. The two broken liners were sand blasted for visual inspection and subsequent metallography and hardness testing. Many cracks were found externally and on the undersides. There were also signs of mechanical damage that occurred inside the mill before detection of the failures. The underside cracking is significant because the user advised that the liners were not backed in the installation. Cracking was present in the microstructures of both liners. These cracks tend to fracture the brittle carbide phase first; once nucleated, the sharp cracks can propagate and grow to critical dimensions, which eventually induces complete failure to the load-bearing section. The premature failure of these liners was caused by severe localized overstress conditions due to localized impact in service. Proper backing of shell liners should be ensured to reduce the effect of impact forces in the ball mill.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.design.c0047234
EISBN: 978-1-62708-233-4
...Abstract Abstract Several deburring drums that fractured were filled with abrasive, water, and small parts, such as roller bearing rollers, and rotated on their axis at 36 rpm. Cracks were discovered very early in the service lives of these high-chromium white iron cast structures. All...
Abstract
Several deburring drums that fractured were filled with abrasive, water, and small parts, such as roller bearing rollers, and rotated on their axis at 36 rpm. Cracks were discovered very early in the service lives of these high-chromium white iron cast structures. All of the fractures were through bolt holes in the mounting flange. The holes had a sharp edge and exhibited uneven wear on the inside diameter. In operation, the mounting bolts were frequently found to be loose and in at least one case broken off. A 25x scanning electron microscopy (SEM) fractograph from near this fracture-initiation area showed fatigue striations. No casting or metallurgical structural defects were found that could explain the failures. This evidence supports the conclusion that cracking was a result of the stress-concentration site at the bolt holes where a fatigue-initiated fracture occurred. Recommendations included that the radii be increased at the sharp corners and that lock-wiring be used to secure against bolt loosening.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0047347
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
...Abstract Abstract A high-chromium white cast iron shell liner installed in an ore crusher sustained impact damage in the course of operation. Visual-optical examination revealed horizontal cracks on the surface of the liner along with particles that had fractured off. Metallographic examination...
Abstract
A high-chromium white cast iron shell liner installed in an ore crusher sustained impact damage in the course of operation. Visual-optical examination revealed horizontal cracks on the surface of the liner along with particles that had fractured off. Metallographic examination indicated a heavily deformed surface layer with chip formation at the wear surface. The chemical composition of the liner was found to be Fe-2.74C-0.75Mn-0.55Si-0.51Ni-19.4Cr-1.15M. This alloy is highly resistant to abrasive wear, yet at the same time, prone to chipping because little plastic displacement will occur at the surface. The liner failed as a result of severe abrasion caused by the impact of taconite rock. This was a material-selection problem in that the wrong alloy was used for a condition not anticipated in the original choice.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003560
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... (10 to 0.01 in.) in diameter, both gouging abrasion and grinding abrasion occur. In high-stress grinding abrasion, the microstructure of the balls and liners influences the wear rate. In unalloyed or low-chromium white iron balls, an Fe 3 C-type carbide (Vickers hardness, of 7.8 to 9.8 GPa or 1130...
Abstract
Wear, a form of surface deterioration, is a factor in a majority of component failures. This article is primarily concerned with abrasive wear mechanisms such as plastic deformation, cutting, and fragmentation which, at their core, stem from a difference in hardness between contacting surfaces. Adhesive wear, the type of wear that occurs between two mutually soluble materials, is also discussed, as is erosive wear, liquid impingement, and cavitation wear. The article also presents a procedure for failure analysis and provides a number of detailed examples, including jaw-type rock crusher wear, electronic circuit board drill wear, grinding plate wear failure analysis, impact wear of disk cutters, and identification of abrasive wear modes in martensitic steels.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006790
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... a duplex microstructure or that are made up of two or more component phases (e.g., a composite-type material, such as a high-chromium white iron, or a composite drill bit, such as diamond or tungsten carbide inserts in a steel matrix), the individual components of which vary in their mechanical properties...
Abstract
Engineered components fail predominantly in four major ways: fracture, corrosion, wear, and undesirable deformation (i.e., distortion). Typical fracture mechanisms feature rapid crack growth by ductile or brittle cracking; more progressive (subcritical) forms involve crack growth by fatigue, creep, or environmentally-assisted cracking. Corrosion and wear are another form of progressive material alteration or removal that can lead to failure or obsolescence. This article primarily covers the topic of abrasive wear failures, covering the general classification of wear. It also discusses methods that may apply to any form of wear mechanism, because it is important to identify all mechanisms or combinations of wear mechanisms during failure analysis. The article concludes by presenting several examples of abrasive wear.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001623
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
... of silicon, aluminum, and oxygen in the nondiscolored region, and these elements are consistent with glass wool. Relatively high levels of chromium and nickel were detected in the discolored area, along with lower amounts of iron, manganese, sodium, calcium, cobalt, and sulfur, in addition to the surrounding...
Abstract
Several glass wool insulation sections from a heat-treat furnace showed visible, but only cosmetic discoloration. EDS showed the presence of silicon, aluminum, and oxygen in the nondiscolored region, and these elements are consistent with glass wool. Relatively high levels of chromium and nickel were detected in the discolored area, along with lower amounts of iron, manganese, sodium, calcium, cobalt, and sulfur, in addition to the surrounding glass wool elements. Results of this limited evaluation showed the discoloration was caused by the presence of elevated levels of chromium, nickel, and aluminum. The visual appearance, along with the EDS findings, suggested these elements were present in the form of oxides. These oxides were likely deposited from adjacent structural components of the furnace, which had oxidized during operation.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c0047297
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... Chromium 0.09 Molybdenum 0.03 Copper 0.55 Tin <0.02 Vanadium 0.05 Iron rem This casting had a carbon equivalent of 3.90. The composition of the cracked casting was: Element Composition, % Carbon 3.25 (a) Manganese 0.61 Phosphorus 0.024 Sulfur...
Abstract
Door-closer cylinder castings manufactured of class 30 gray iron were breaking during machining. The manufacturing source reported that a random sampling of castings from this lot had hardnesses from 180 to 210 HRB. Based on the color of the components, heat treatment of these castings was suspected. Metallurgical examination on two representative castings supported the conclusions that the cracks in these gray iron door closers that were present either before or during the heat treatment were attributed to a substandard microstructure of the wrong type of graphite combined with excessive ferrite. This anomalous structure is caused by shortcomings in the foundry practice of chemical composition, solidification, and inoculation control. Judging from the microstructure, the strength of the material was lower than desired for class 30 gray iron, and the suspected heat treatment further reduced the strength. Recommendations included that the chemistry and inoculation should be controlled to produce type A graphite structure. The chemistry control should aim for a carbon equivalent close to 4.3% to achieve adequate fluidity for thin sections and to alleviate gas defects.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003556
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
..., iron (III) oxides + residual anaerobic corrosion products 2–5 (a) (a) This very high corrosion rate may not be sustained beyond the period of secondary oxidation of the anaerobic site. The presence of a hard, white, calcium carbonate scale is good evidence that effective CP potentials...
Abstract
This article focuses on the mechanisms of microbially induced or influenced corrosion (MIC) of metallic materials as an introduction to the recognition, management, and prevention of microbiological corrosion failures in piping, tanks, heat exchangers, and cooling towers. It discusses the degradation of various protective systems, such as corrosion inhibitors and lubricants. The article describes the failure analysis of steel, iron, copper, aluminum, and their alloys. It also discusses the probes available to monitor conditions relevant to MIC in industrial systems and the sampling and analysis of conditions usually achieved by the installation of removable coupons in the target system. The article also explains the prevention and control strategies of MIC in industrial systems.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001834
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
.... Recommendations ECCC , Residual life assessment and microstructure , in ECCC , vol. 6 , no. 1 ( 2005 ) 8. Trindade V. , Christ H.-J. , Krupp U. , Grain-size effects on the high-temperature oxidation behavior of chromium steels . Oxid. Met . 73 , 551 – 563 ( 2010 ) 10.1007...
Abstract
The failure of T12 reheater tubes that had been in service for only 3000 h was investigated. The thickness of the tubes was visibly reduced by heavy oxidation corrosion on the inner and outer walls. The original pearlite substrate completely decomposed. Uniform oxide scale observed on the inner wall showed obvious vapor oxidation corrosion characteristics. Corrosion originated in the grain boundary, and selective oxidation occurred due to ion diffusion in the substrate. The layered oxide scale on the inner wall is related to the different diffusion rates for different cations. Exposure to high temperature corrosive flux accelerated the corrosion on the outer wall. Microstructure degradation and the corrosion characteristics observed indicate that the tubes failed primarily because of overheating, which is confirmed by calculations.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001049
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... Metal Iron 52 40 1.0 Nickel 35 44 72.0 Chromium 9 11 20.0 Niobium 2 2 2.5 Manganese 2 2 3.0 Corrosion or Wear Deposits Results of analysis of the corrosion products present in some of the cracks are listed in Table 2 . Composition of corrosion products...
Abstract
Routine inspections of a carbon steel wood pulp digester revealed a sharply increasing number of cracks in the overlay metal on the internal surface of the digester after 1 and 2 years of service. The weld overlay was composed of type 309 stainless steel on the top fourth of the digester and of a proprietary high-nickel material on the bottom three-fourths. Examination revealed three distinct modes of deterioration. General corrosion was linked to the use of unspecified overlay metal. Cracking resulted during installation from the use of a material susceptible to hot cracking. Deep corrosion fissures then developed at hot crack sites as a result of crevice corrosion. Use of the appropriate overlay material was recommended.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0048294
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... examination of each type of rupture revealed noticeable swelling of the tubes in the area of rupture ( Fig. 1 ). Relatively slight scaling, probably caused by high-temperature oxidation, was visible on fire-side surfaces, and black deposits and white deposits were found on steam-side surfaces. Subsequent...
Abstract
The tubes of a stationary industrial boiler, 64 mm in diam and made of 1.25Cr-0.5Mo steel (ASME SA-213, grade T-11) failed by two different types of rupture. Noticeable swelling of the tubes in the area of rupture was revealed by visual examination. The tubes with slight longitudinal splits were interpreted to have failed by stress rupture resulting from prolonged overheating at 540 to 650 deg C as the microstructure exhibited extensive spheroidization and coalescence of carbides. The larger ruptures were tensile failures that resulted from rapid overheating to 815 to 870 deg C as a completely martensitic structure was revealed at the edges of the ruptures in these tubes because of rapid quenching by escaping fluid. The prolonged-overheating failures were concluded to have been the primary ruptures and that local loss of circulation had caused rapid overheating in adjacent tubes. Poor boiler circulation and high furnace temperatures were believed to have caused the prolonged overheating.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001084
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... material did not meet compositional requirements. The phosphorus and chromium contents were significantly greater than the maximum allowable levels. The excess phosphorus could have possible deleterious effects in terms of embrittlement, whereas high levels of chromium may destabilize the austenite...
Abstract
Failure analysis was performed on a fractured impeller from a boiler feed pump of a fossil fuel power plant. The impeller was a 12% Cr martensitic stainless steel casting. The failure occurred near the outside diameter of the shroud in the vicinity of a section change at the shroud/vane junction. Sections cut from the impeller were examined visually and by SEM fractography. Microstructural, chemical, and surface analyses and surface hardness tests were conducted on the impeller segments. The results indicated that the impeller failed in fatigue with casting defects increasing stress and initiating fracture. In addition, the composition and hardness of the impeller did not meet specifications. Revision of the casting process and institution of quality assurance methods were recommended.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001109
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
.... The processing of taconite iron ore involves grinding, magnetic separation of iron, mixing in additives, pelletizing, and heating the pellets to high temperatures to sinter and harden them (induration). In “acid” pellet production, the additive is bentonite, which serves as a binder to promote green strength...
Abstract
Grate bars in the traveling grate indurators in several taconite processing units suffered excessive corrosion following a conversion from acid to fluxed pellet production procedures. The campaign life of the HH grade cast stainless steel bars was reduced from more than 7 years to approximately 9 months. Several corroded grate bars were examined metallographically and by electron microscopy to determine the causes of the accelerated corrosion. Chemical and X-ray diffraction analyses were also conducted, along with simulation tests to assess the role of alkali chlorides in the corrosion process. The basic cause of degradation was found to be hot corrosion caused by the deposition of alkali sulfates and chlorides. However this degradation may have been aggravated by thermal cycling and abrasion. The source of the salt was impurities in the flux. Two potential solutions were proposed: modification of the processing parameters to reduce the salt deposition and / or change of bar materials to a more resistant alloy.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003508
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
..., and the fracture appeared to be related to shrinkage porosity. Chemical analysis of the core showed that the composition corresponded to 3310 steel except for low manganese, slightly high chromium, and lower silicon than would normally be expected in a cast steel. The hardness range of the core conforms...
Abstract
This article focuses on the general root causes of failure attributed to the casting process, casting material, and design with examples. The casting processes discussed include gravity die casting, pressure die casting, semisolid casting, squeeze casting, and centrifugal casting. Cast iron, gray cast iron, malleable irons, ductile iron, low-alloy steel castings, austenitic steels, corrosion-resistant castings, and cast aluminum alloys are the materials discussed. The article describes the general types of discontinuities or imperfections for traditional casting with sand molds. It presents the international classification of common casting defects in a tabular form.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006816
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... or holes, or burrs may be present that promote cracking in parts. Sometimes the material specified cannot achieve the properties required for the service intended. For instance, a pneumatic chisel made from a high-carbon, high-chromium steel will not achieve as long a service life as a silicon-type shock...
Abstract
This article introduces some of the general sources of heat treating problems with particular emphasis on problems caused by the actual heat treating process and the significant thermal and transformation stresses within a heat treated part. It addresses the design and material factors that cause a part to fail during heat treatment. The article discusses the problems associated with heating and furnaces, quenching media, quenching stresses, hardenability, tempering, carburizing, carbonitriding, and nitriding as well as potential stainless steel problems and problems associated with nonferrous heat treatments. The processes involved in cold working of certain ferrous and nonferrous alloys are also covered.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001535
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
... are usually made from high carbon-high chromium varieties of D2 (1.25 wt% C, 12 wt% Cr) or D4 (2.25 wt% C, 12 wt% Cr) type cold-work tool steels ( Ref 4 ) or of tungsten carbide ( Ref 5 ), second-intermediate roll steel composition is leaner in carbon content for enhanced toughness. It has been reported ( Ref...
Abstract
Although a precise understanding of roll failure genesis is complex, the microstructure of a broken roll can often unravel intrinsic deficiencies in material quality responsible for its failure. This is especially relevant in circumstances when, even under a similar mill-operating environment, the failure involves a particular roll or a specific batch of rolls. This paper provides a microstructural insight into the cause of premature breakage of a second-intermediate Sendzimir mill drive roll used at a stainless steel sheet rolling plant under the Steel Authority of India Limited. Microstructural issues influencing roll quality, such as characteristics of carbides, tempered martensite, retained austenite, etc., have been extensively studied through optical and scanning electron microscopy, electron-probe microanalysis, image analysis, and x-ray diffractometry. These are discussed to elucidate specific microstructural inadequacies that accentuated the failure. The study reveals that even through retained austenite content is low (6.29 vol%) and martensite is non-acicular, the roll breakage is a consequence of intergranular cracking caused by improper carbide morphology and distribution.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001714
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
... of the pipe surface. The period of time which is needed for reducing the chromia layer is called incubation time. After the chromia layer diminishes, carburization process or metal dusting attack starts. This process continues by diffusion of carbon on the pipe and forms (chromium, iron) carbide...
Abstract
In a HyL III heat exchanger's radiant pipes, metal dusting reduced the pipe thickness from 8.5 to 3 mm in just nine months, leaving craters on the inner surface. The pipes are fabricated from HK 40 alloy. The heated gas (400 to 800 deg C) consisted of CO, CO2, and H2, with a 4:1 CO/CO2 ratio. Metallographic investigations revealed that the surface of the attacked pipes consisted of (Cr, Fe) carbide. The metal dusting was the result of a decomposition process (CO to CO2 + C) that deposited C on the pipe surface. Because of the high temperature, the C subsequently diffused through the surface oxide layer (Cr2O3), triggering a succession of reactions that led to pitting and the formation of craters.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001277
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... rapid corrosion of the inner diameter surface. Atomic hydrogen can diffuse into the metal and combine with carbon from iron carbides to form methane, or with other hydrogen atoms to form molecular hydrogen. These large gas molecules become trapped and produce very high localized stresses, leading...
Abstract
Waterwall tube failure samples removed from a coal- and oil-fired boiler in service for 12 years exhibited localized underdeposit corrosion and hydrogen damage. EDS and XRD revealed that bulk internal deposits collected from the tubes contained metallic copper which can accelerate corrosion through galvanic effects and can promote hydrogen damage. Ultrasonic testing was recommended to locate tubes with severe gouging and corrosion, which are suspect locations for hydrogen damage. The source of the copper should be identified and future chemical cleaning of the boiler should address its presence in the waterwall tubes.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001814
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... in cold-working and hot-working applications. It reviews problems introduced during mechanical design, materials selection, machining, heat treating, finish grinding, and tool and die operation. The brittle fracture of rehardened high-speed steels is also considered. Finally, failures due to seams or laps...
Abstract
This article describes the characteristics of tools and dies and the causes of their failures. It discusses the failure mechanisms in tool and die materials that are important to nearly all manufacturing processes, but is primarily devoted to failures of tool steels used in cold-working and hot-working applications. It reviews problems introduced during mechanical design, materials selection, machining, heat treating, finish grinding, and tool and die operation. The brittle fracture of rehardened high-speed steels is also considered. Finally, failures due to seams or laps, unconsolidated interiors, and carbide segregation and poor carbide morphology are reviewed with illustrations.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006818
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... steels • Brownsword R. et al. , Studies of Wear in High-Speed Steel Tools , ISI P126 , Iron and Steel Institute , London , 1971 , p 38 – 42 • Doyle F.D. , Effect of Different Heat Treatments on the Wear of High Speed Steel Cutting Tools , Wear , Vol 27 , 1974 , p 295...
Abstract
This article discusses failure mechanisms in tool and die materials that are very important to nearly all manufacturing processes. It is primarily devoted to failures of tool steels used in cold working and hot working applications. The processes involved in the analysis of tool and die failures are also covered. In addition, the article focuses on a number of factors that are responsible for tool and die failures, including mechanical design, grade selection, steel quality, machining processes, heat treatment operation, and tool and die setup.