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Book Chapter
Analysis of Degradation and Failure Mechanisms that Develop in Hot Forging Die
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001848
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... hardness of the die was 48 HRC. Owing to a damaged surface, the die was removed from the production line after 30,000 hits. The forging operation is performed with a 250-ton mechanical eccentric press, with the workpiece initially at 700°C with a lubricated contact. The drop of the up die is done in 20 ms...
Abstract
A forging die in a 250-ton press producing brass valves began to show signs of fatigue after a few thousand hits. By the time it reached 30,000 hits, the die was badly damaged and was submitted for analysis along with one of the last forgings produced. The investigation included visual and macroscopic inspection, metallographic and chemical analysis, SEM imaging, optical profilometry, mechanical property testing, and EDX analysis. The die was made of chromium hot-work tool steel and the forgings were made of CuZn39Pb3 heated to an initial working temperature 700 deg C. The entire surface of the die was covered with fatigue cracks and many fillets had been plastically deformed. Several other types of damage were also observed, including areas of oxidation, corrosion pits, voids, abrasive wear, die adhesion, and thermal fatigue. Fatigue cracking was the primary cause of failure with significant contributions from the other damage mechanisms.
Book Chapter
Fatigue Fracture of an Aluminum Alloy 7075-T73 Landing-Gear Torque Arm
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c0046146
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... hole since no material defects were found at the failure origin. Recommendations included redesign of the lubrication hole, shot peeing of the faces of the lug for added resistance to fatigue failure, and changing of the forging material to aluminum alloy 7175-T736 for its higher mechanical properties...
Abstract
The torque-arm assembly (aluminum alloy 7075-T73) for an aircraft nose landing gear failed after 22,779 simulated flights. The part, made from an aluminum alloy 7075-T73 forging, had an expected life of 100,000 simulated flights. Initial study of the fracture surfaces indicated that the primary fracture initiated from multiple origins on both sides of a lubrication hole that extended from the outer surface to the bore of a lug in two cadmium-plated flanged bushings made of copper alloy C63000 (aluminum bronze) that were press-fitted into each bored hole in the lug. Sectioning and 2x metallographic analysis showed small fatigue-type cracks in the hole adjacent to the origin of primary fracture. Hardness and electrical conductivity were typical for aluminum alloy 7075. This evidence supported the conclusion that the arm failed in fatigue cracking that initiated on each side of the lubrication hole since no material defects were found at the failure origin. Recommendations included redesign of the lubrication hole, shot peeing of the faces of the lug for added resistance to fatigue failure, and changing of the forging material to aluminum alloy 7175-T736 for its higher mechanical properties.
Book Chapter
Cast Ingot Cracked During Forging
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001252
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... Abstract An octagonal steel ingot weighing 13 tons made of manganese-molybdenum steel developed gaping cross-cracks on all eight sides in the forging press during initial pressure application. It was reported that the steel had been melted in a basic 12-ton arc furnace, oxygenated, furnished...
Abstract
An octagonal steel ingot weighing 13 tons made of manganese-molybdenum steel developed gaping cross-cracks on all eight sides in the forging press during initial pressure application. It was reported that the steel had been melted in a basic 12-ton arc furnace, oxygenated, furnished with 42 kg of 75% ferrosilicon and 12 kg aluminum additions, alloyed with 160 kg of 80% ferromanganese, and finally deoxidized in the ladle with 42 kg calcium silicon. For metallographic examination a plate approximately 100 mm thick was cut parallel to one of the eight planes. Platelet-like particles could be discerned on the conchoidal fracture planes with the SEM. The precipitates proved to be thin and partially transparent platelets of a hexagonal crystal lattice whose parameters resemble those of AIN. The precipitates were at least in part still undissolved in spite of the long holding period at high initial forging temperature. Another block melted under the same conditions and immediately after the defective one, was forged into a gear ring without any trouble. This ring was free of grain boundary precipitates, but it contained only 0.012 % AI and 0.0102 % N.
Book Chapter
Failures Related to Hot Forming Processes
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006835
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
...-die and upset forgings are produced from billets, bar stock, or a preform, all of which have received some previous mechanical working. The major problems associated with melting and casting practice are the development of centerline segregation and porosity and a condition known as scabs...
Abstract
The primary purpose of this article is to describe general root causes of failure that are associated with wrought metals and metalworking. This includes a brief review of the discontinuities or imperfections that may be common sources of failure-inducing defects in the bulk working of wrought products. The article addresses the types of flaws or defects that can be introduced during the steel forging process itself, including defects originating in the ingot-casting process. Defects found in nonferrous forgings—titanium, aluminum, and copper and copper alloys—also are covered.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c0059924
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... Abstract The large steel ring produced for a nuclear application from a billet of 8822 steel was inspected. The large billet was first forged into a doughnut preform in a large press, and then formed into the ring by ring rolling. A straight-beam ultrasonic inspection was instituted...
Abstract
The large steel ring produced for a nuclear application from a billet of 8822 steel was inspected. The large billet was first forged into a doughnut preform in a large press, and then formed into the ring by ring rolling. A straight-beam ultrasonic inspection was instituted and calibrated using the back-surface-reflection method to determine whether adequate ultrasonic penetration was available. Areas of indications were noted at approximately midheight and adjacent to the bore area. An axial angle-beam inspection from the outside was performed, mainly in the area of indications to reveal detectable indications. The indications were not considered serious enough to reject the forgings. A few small indications in the areas tested were revealed by magnetic particle inspection. The area was conditioned by grinding and polishing to obtain an additional inspection at a greater depth from the inside surface. A much more severe condition was revealed after the test. The indications were classified as areas of chemical segregation and nonmetallic inclusions. The ring was considered unsatisfactory for the application and replacement of the defective ring from an acceptable billet was the most economical solution.
Book Chapter
Failures of Forged End Bells on Large Electric Generators
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001724
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... America. Bad accidents occurred to two 100,000-kw. machines in Toronto in the first week of April 1954, in addition to the failures of four rotor forgings discussed before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers last winter and summarized in Metal Progress in February 1956. The wrecked Canadian...
Abstract
Forged austenitic steel rings used on rotor shafts in two 100,000 kW generators burst from overstressing in a region of ventilation holes. A variety of causes contributed to the brittle fractures in the ductile austenitic alloy, including stress concentration by holes, work hardened metal in the bores, and a variable pattern of residual stress.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001808
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... stressed area—typically a stress raiser, which may be mechanical, metallurgical, or sometimes a combination of the two. Mechanical stress raisers include such features as small fillets, sharp corners, grooves, splines, keyways, nicks, and press or shrink fits. Shafts often break at edges of press-fitted...
Abstract
This article discusses failures in shafts such as connecting rods, which translate rotary motion to linear motion, and in piston rods, which translate the action of fluid power to linear motion. It describes the process of examining a failed shaft to guide the direction of failure investigation and corrective action. Fatigue failures in shafts, such as bending fatigue, torsional fatigue, contact fatigue, and axial fatigue, are reviewed. The article provides information on the brittle fracture, ductile fracture, distortion, and corrosion of shafts. Abrasive wear and adhesive wear of metal parts are also discussed. The article concludes with a discussion on the influence of metallurgical factors and fabrication practices on the fatigue properties of materials, as well as the effects of surface coatings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006810
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... start at the most vulnerable point in a dynamically stressed area—typically a stress raiser, which may be mechanical, metallurgical, or sometimes a combination of the two. Mechanical stress raisers include such features as small fillets, sharp corners, grooves, splines, keyways, nicks, and press...
Abstract
In addition to failures in shafts, this article discusses failures in connecting rods, which translate rotary motion to linear motion (and conversely), and in piston rods, which translate the action of fluid power to linear motion. It begins by discussing the origins of fracture. Next, the article describes the background information about the shaft used for examination. Then, it focuses on various failures in shafts, namely bending fatigue, torsional fatigue, axial fatigue, contact fatigue, wear, brittle fracture, and ductile fracture. Further, the article discusses the effects of distortion and corrosion on shafts. Finally, it discusses the types of stress raisers and the influence of changes in shaft diameter.
Book Chapter
Mechanical Testing in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006761
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... on, these three orientations are longitudinal, long transverse, and short transverse. For other manufacturing operations such as die forgings, castings, and additive manufacturing, the mechanical property dependency on location and orientation can be even more complex. Therefore, it is important that any...
Abstract
Mechanical testing is an evaluative tool used by the failure analyst to collect data regarding the macro- and micromechanical properties of the materials being examined. This article provides information on a few important considerations regarding mechanical testing that the failure analyst must keep in mind. These considerations include the test location and orientation, the use of raw material certifications, the certifications potentially not representing the hardware, and the determination of valid test results. The article introduces the concepts of various mechanical testing techniques and discusses the advantages and limitations of each technique when used in failure analysis. The focus is on various types of static load testing, hardness testing, and impact testing. The testing types covered include uniaxial tension testing, uniaxial compression testing, bend testing, hardness testing, macroindentation hardness, microindentation hardness, and the impact toughness test.
Book Chapter
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Tough Pitch Copper in a Bolting Application
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001815
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... that a preferential hard plane of material may have been created during the cold-heading operation. This hard plane would have lower ductility and possibly separate at the grain boundaries under load. This mechanism would not account for the delayed fractures. However, intergranular separation along forging planes...
Abstract
Copper electrical feedthrough pins used in a bolting application in a refrigeration compressor had functioned without failure for years of production and thousands of units. When some of the pins began to fail, an investigation was conducted to determine the cause. Visual examination revealed that the observed fractures were mixed brittle intergranular with ductile microvoid dimples. An extensive analysis of failed samples combined with a process of elimination indicated that the fractures were due to stress-corrosion cracking caused by an unidentified chemical species within the sealed compressor chamber. A unique combination of applied stress, residual stress, stress riser, and grain size helped isolate the failure mechanism to a single production lot of material.
Book Chapter
Failures Related to Metalworking
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003507
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... are produced from billets, bar stock, or a preform that has received some previous mechanical working. The product may be suitable for immediate application, but in many cases, it serves as the starting material for another (so-called secondary) deformation process, such as drawing, hot forging, cold forging...
Abstract
This article describes the general root causes of failure associated with wrought metals and metalworking. This includes a brief review of the discontinuities or imperfections that may be the common sources of failure-inducing defects in bulk working of wrought products. The article discusses the types of imperfections that can be traced to the original ingot product. These include chemical segregation; ingot pipe, porosity, and centerline shrinkage; high hydrogen content; nonmetallic inclusions; unmelted electrodes and shelf; and cracks, laminations, seams, pits, blisters, and scabs. The article provides a discussion on the imperfections found in steel forgings. The problems encountered in sheet metal forming are also discussed. The article concludes with information on the causes of failure in cold formed parts.
Book Chapter
Introduction to Failure Analysis and Prevention
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003500
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Alloy steel forgings used as structural members of a ski chair lift grip mechanism were identified to have contained forging laps during an annual magnetic particle inspection of all chair lift grip structural members at a mountain resort. A lap in one of the lift grip components ( Fig. 15 ) measured...
Abstract
This article briefly introduces the concepts of failure analysis and root cause analysis (RCA), and the role of failure analysis as a general engineering tool for enhancing product quality and failure prevention. It reviews four fundamental categories of physical root causes, namely, design deficiencies, material defects, manufacturing/installation defects, and service life anomalies, with examples. The article describes several common charting methods that may be useful in performing an RCA. It also discusses other failure analysis tools, including review of all sources of input and information, people interviews, laboratory investigations, stress analysis, and fracture mechanics analysis. The article concludes with information on the categories of failure and failure prevention.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of Aircraft Landing Gear Components
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001504
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... be tolerated and was inherent to the manufacturing process (e.g., a lap or a flash line in the case of forgings, porosity in the case of cast wheels). The distribution of the failure mechanisms was determined to be materials dependent. In general, fatigue was the most important failure mechanism for steels...
Abstract
Despite extensive aircraft landing gear design analyses and tests performed by designers and manufacturers, and the large number of trouble-free landings, aircraft users have experienced problems with and failures of landing gear components. Different data banks and over 200 failure analysis reports were surveyed to provide an overview of structural landing gear component failures as experienced by the Canadian Forces over the last 20 years on more than 20 aircraft types, and to assess trends in failure mechanisms and causes. Case histories were selected to illustrate typical problems, troublesome failure mechanisms, the role of high strength aluminum alloys and steels, and situations where fracture mechanics analyses provided insight into the failures. The two main failure mechanisms were: fatigue occurring mainly in steel components, and corrosion related problems with aluminum alloys. Very few overload failures were noted. A number of causes were identified: design deficiencies and manufacturing defects leading mainly to fatigue failures, and poor materials selection and improper maintenance as the principal causes of corrosion-related failures. The survey showed that a proper understanding of the failure mechanisms and causes, by thorough failure analysis, provides valuable feedback information to designers, operators and maintenance personnel for appropriate corrective actions to be taken.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of Railroad Components
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006837
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... Fig. 6 Derailment 2. Arrows indicate boundary of galling damage and fracture-initiation location Each axle stub was pressed out of the bearing bores, and samples were sectioned from the fracture surface at and away from the initiation site. Mechanical property samples were also removed...
Abstract
Because of the tough engineering environment of the railroad industry, fatigue is a primary mode of failure. The increased competitiveness in the industry has led to increased loads, reducing the safety factor with respect to fatigue life. Therefore, the existence of corrosion pitting and manufacturing defects has become more important. This article presents case histories that are intended as an overview of the unique types of failures encountered in the freight railroad industry. The discussion covers failures of axle journals, bearings, wheels, couplers, rails and rail welds, and track equipment.
Book
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.9781627083294
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
Book Chapter
Introduction to Failure Analysis and Prevention
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006753
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
..., culminating in part with the development of the engineering discipline of fracture mechanics ( Ref 4 ). Through these and other efforts, insights into the cause and prevention of failures continue to evolve. Further discussion can be found in the article “ Failures Related to Welding ,” in Failure Analysis...
Abstract
This article briefly introduces the concepts of failure analysis, including root-cause analysis (RCA), and the role of failure analysis as a general engineering tool for enhancing product quality and failure prevention. It initially provides definitions of failure on several different levels, followed by a discussion on the role of failure analysis and the appreciation of quality assurance and user expectations. Systematic analysis of equipment failures reveals physical root causes that fall into one of four fundamental categories: design, manufacturing/installation, service, and material, which are discussed in the following sections along with examples. The tools available for failure analysis are then covered. Further, the article describes the categories of mode of failure: distortion or undesired deformation, fracture, corrosion, and wear. It provides information on the processes involved in RCA and the charting methods that may be useful in RCA and ends with a description of various factors associated with failure prevention.
Book Chapter
Brittle Fracture of a Crane Hook
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.matlhand.c9001451
EISBN: 978-1-62708-224-2
... was there any indication of a pre-existing crack or major discontinuity at the point of origin. A sulfur print suggested the hook had been forged from a billet cogged down from an ingot of semi-killed steel. Failure of this hook was attributed to strain-age embrittlement of the material at the surface...
Abstract
During the lifting of a piece of machinery by means of an overhead travelling crane the hook fractured suddenly. The load was attached to the hook by means of fiber rope slings and rupture occurred in a plane which appeared to coincide with the sling loop nearest to the back of the hook. The rated capacity of the crane was 15 tons. At the time of the mishap it was being used to lift one end of a hydraulic cylinder with a total weight of about 27 tons. Fracture was of the cleavage type throughout. There was no evidence of any prior deformation of the material in the vicinity, nor was there any indication of a pre-existing crack or major discontinuity at the point of origin. A sulfur print suggested the hook had been forged from a billet cogged down from an ingot of semi-killed steel. Failure of this hook was attributed to strain-age embrittlement of the material at the surface of the intrados.
Book Chapter
Fractographic and Metallographic Study of Spalling Failure of Steel Straightener Rolls
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001849
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... steel) UNS T20813 Introduction and Background Information Work rolls used for guiding, rolling, and straightening of metal products (flats, bars, profiles, etc.) are widely used in the metal-forming industry. Metal-working rolls are primarily manufactured from forged or cast steel or cast iron...
Abstract
Spalled fragments from the work rolls of a steel bar straightening machine were received for failure analysis. Visual inspection coupled with optical and scanning electron microscopy were used as the principal analytical techniques for the investigation. Fractographic analysis revealed the presence of a characteristic fatigue crack propagation pattern (beach marks) and radial chevron marks indicating the occurrence of final overload through a brittle intergranular fracture. The collected evidence suggests that surface-initiated cracks propagated by fatigue led to spalling, resulting in severe work roll damage as well as machine downtime and increased maintenance costs.
Book Chapter
Problematic Failure Analysis of a Cast Steel Crankshaft
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.usage.c9001597
EISBN: 978-1-62708-236-5
... Abstract This case study involves two continuously cast steel crankshaft failures. Three parties performed their own failure analyses: (1) the engine manufacturer responsible for component design, specification, and application; (2) the steel supplier and forging supplier responsible for making...
Abstract
This case study involves two continuously cast steel crankshaft failures. Three parties performed their own failure analyses: (1) the engine manufacturer responsible for component design, specification, and application; (2) the steel supplier and forging supplier responsible for making the steel, forging the shape, and preliminary heat treatment; and (3) a supplier that provided induction hardening, finish machining, and inspection. An independent engineering firm was subsequently involved, but because each party had its own agenda, there was no agreement on the metallurgical source of the failure and thus no continued analysis to pin down and eliminate the root cause.
Book Chapter
Failures Related to Heat Treating Operations
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003510
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... ). If the transformation occurs after the thermal stress maximum (sequence 1 in Fig. 12 ), the austenite is pressed into a barrel shape, followed by a volumetric increase due to martensitic transformation. This results in high tensile residual stresses on the surface. If the steel transformation occurs simultaneously...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the effects of various material- and process-related parameters on residual stress, distortion control, cracking, and microstructure/property relationships as they relate to various types of failure. It discusses phase transformations that occur during heat treating and describes the metallurgical sources of stress and distortion during heating and cooling. The article summarizes the effect of materials and the quench-process design on distortion and cracking and details the effect of cooling characteristics on residual stress and distortion. It also provides information on the methods of minimizing distortion and tempering. The article concludes with a discussion on the effect of heat treatment processes on microstructure/property-related failures.
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