A 460 mm (18 in.) diam suction line to the main feed water pump for a nuclear power plant failed in a violent, catastrophic manner. Samples of pipe, elbow, and weld materials (ASTM A106 grade B carbon steel, ASTM A234 grade WPB carbon steel, and E7018 carbon steel electrode, respectively) from the suction line were analyzed. Evidence of overall thinning of the elbow and pipe material and ductile tearing of fractures indicated that the feed water pipe failed as a result of an erosion corrosion mechanism, which thinned the wall sufficiently to cause rapid, ductile tearing of the material after its design stress had been exceeded. It was recommended that steel with a higher chromium content be used to mitigate the erosion corrosion potential in the lines and that more rigorous nondestructive (ultrasonic) examinations be performed.

A wall section of a carbon steel choke body in gas service at 4400 psig blew out three months after the use of a corrosion inhibitor was stopped. Corrosion damage occurred in ripples, leaving both smoothly polished and unattacked areas. The corrodent in condensate wells was principally carbon dioxide dissolved in water condensed from the gas stream, with organic acids possibly an aggravating factor. A gas analysis showed no other corrosive agents. No metallurgical or fabrication defects were found in the carbon steel part. The mode of attack was corrosion-erosion, caused by the corrosive, high velocity gas flow. The corrosion rate of either the inhibited or uninhibited gas stream was too high for equipment in high pressure gas service. Type 410 (12% Cr) stainless steel was recommended for the choke bodies because other equipment such as valves made of type 410 showed no evidence of corrosion damage after three years' exposure. This change was made five years ago and there have been no failures since.

An Inconel-clad SA-212 Grade B carbon steel inlet cone with an anticipated 25-year service life failed in a localized area after only seven years of service. The failure was caused by an erosion/corrosion leak at the midsection. Erosion/corrosion was confined to a localized area directly facing the steam inlet nozzle. The Inconel cladding was intact elsewhere in the inlet cone with insignificant corrosion-related degradation. In the absence of the conditions that led to erosion/corrosion, the Inconel clad carbon steel was considered adequate for the intended service. As a corrective measure, a solid Inconel liner was recommended in the areas of direct steam impingement.

Erosion occurs as the result of a number of different mechanisms, depending on the composition, size, and shape of the eroding particles; their velocity and angle of impact; and the composition of the surface being eroded. This article describes the erosion of ductile and brittle materials with the aid of models and equations. It presents three examples of erosive wear failures, namely, abrasive erosion, erosion-corrosion, and cavitation erosion.

Erosion is the progressive loss of original material from a solid surface due to mechanical interaction between that surface and a fluid, a multicomponent fluid, an impinging liquid, or impinging solid particles. The detrimental effects of erosion have caused problems in a number of industries. This article describes the processes involved in erosion of ductile materials, brittle materials, and elastomers. Some examples of erosive wear failures are given on abrasive erosion, liquid impingement erosion, cavitation, and erosion-corrosion. In addition, the article provides information on the selection of materials for applications in which erosive wear failures can occur.

Two hot water reheat coil valves from a heating/ventilating/air-conditioning system failed in service. The values, a 353 copper alloy 19 mm (3/4 in.) valve and a 360 copper alloy 13 mm (1/2 in.) valve, had been failing at an increasing rate. The failures were confined to the stems and seats. Visual examination revealed severe localized metal loss in the form of deep grooves with smooth and wavy surfaces. Metallographic analysis of the grooved areas revealed uniform metal loss. No evidence of intergranular or selective attack indicating erosion-corrosion was observed, Recommendations included use of a higher-copper brass, cupronickel, or Monel for the valve seats and stems and operation of the valves in either the fully opened or closed position.

A fan support casting failed unexpectedly while running at 1800 rpm in pulp at 65 deg C (150 deg F). The leading edge of the blade exhibited deep spongy holes leading to reduced section and finally to fracture of the part when the remaining section size was insufficient to support the load. Analysis showed the support casting to be a standard 8620 type composition with a hardness of 311 HRB. The design of the casting was not streamlined. There were several square corners present where great pressure differences could be generated. This was a case of erosion-corrosion with the classic spongy appearance of cavitation. Two changes were proposed: streamlining the part to avoid abrupt changes in fluid flow; and a change in alloy to a more corrosion-resistant material (304 or preferably 316) to increase the tenacity of protective films.

Post-service destructive evaluation was performed on two commercially pure zirconium pump impellers. One impeller failed after short service in an aqueous hydrochloric acid environment. Its exposed surfaces are bright and shiny, covered with pockmarks, and peppered with pitting. Uniform corrosion is evident and two deep linear defects are present on impeller blade tips. In contrast, the undamaged impeller surfaces are covered with a dark oxide film. This and many other impellers in seemingly identical service conditions survive long lives with little or no apparent damage. No material or manufacturing defects were found to explain the different service performance of the two impellers. Microstructure, microhardness and material chemistry are consistent with the specified material. Examination reveals the damage mechanism to be corrosion-enhanced cavitation erosion, the most severe form of erosion corrosion. Cavitation damage to the protective oxide film caused the zirconium to lose its normally outstanding corrosion resistance. The root cause of the impeller failure is most likely the introduction of excessive air into the pump due to low liquid level, a bad seal or inadequate head. Corrosion pitting, crevice corrosion, and solidification cracks (casting defect) also contributed to the failure.

Three 1006 carbon steels team/water separators failed in a boiler in installation after several years of service. Annual inspection had revealed no evidence of deterioration until the last inspection, when they were removed from service. Metallurgical investigation determined that the separators had deteriorated because of erosion corrosion. Further analysis of the boiler operation revealed that operational changes made in the last year of service caused an increase in velocity of the water/steam mixture. It was recommended that the operating parameters for the boiler be reevaluated and prior levels of operation be reinstituted.

A 150 mm (6 in.) diam, 1.6 mm (0.065 in.) thick alloy 800 1iner from an internal bypass line in a hydrogen reformer was removed from a waste heat boiler because of severe metal loss. Visual and metallographic examinations of the liner indicated severe metal wastage on the inner surface, along with sooty residue. Patterns similar to those associated with erosion/corrosion damage were observed. Microstructural examination of wasted areas revealed a bulk matrix composed of massive carbides, indicating that gross carburization and metal dusting had occurred. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the carbides were primarily chromium based (Cr 23 C 7 and Cr 7 C 3 ). The sooty substance was identified as graphite. Wasted areas were ferromagnetic and the degree of ferromagnetism was directly related to the degree of wastage. Three actions were recommended: (1) inspection of the waste heat boiler to determine the extent of metal damage in other areas by measuring the degree of ferromagnetism, (2) replacement of metal determined to be magnetic, and (3) closer monitoring of temperatures in the region of the reformer furnace outlet.

This article focuses on the corrosion-wear synergism in aqueous slurry and grinding environments. It describes the effects of environmental factors on corrosive wear and provides information on the impact and three-body abrasive-corrosive wear. The article also discusses the various means for combating corrosive wear, namely, materials selection, surface treatments, and handling-environment modifications.

Corrosive wear is defined as surface damage caused by wear in a corrosive environment, involving combined attacks from wear and corrosion. This article begins with a discussion on several typical forms of corrosive wear encountered in industry, followed by a discussion on mechanisms for corrosive wear. Next, the article explains testing methods and characterization of corrosive wear. Various factors that influence corrosive wear are then covered. The article concludes with general guidelines for material selection against corrosive wear.

Critical heat exchanger components are usually manufactured from durable steels, such as stainless steel, which exhibit good strength and corrosion resistance. Failure of a heat exchanger occurred due to specification of a plain carbon steel that did not survive service in the SO2 vapor environment. However, failure analysis showed that cavitation erosion was the responsible failure mechanism, not corrosion as might be expected.

Metallurgical SEM analysis provides many insights into the failure of biomedical materials and devices. The results of several such investigations are reported here, including findings and conclusions from the examination a total hip prosthesis, stainless steel and titanium compression plates, and hollow spinal rods. Some of the failure mechanisms that were identified include corrosive attack, corrosion plus erosion-corrosion, inclusions and stress gaps, production impurities, design flaws, and manufacturing defects. Failure prevention and mitigation strategies are also discussed.