As the result of a leak detected in a plate-formed header at PENELEC'S Shawville Unit No. 3, an extensive failure investigation was initiated to determine the origin of cracking visible along the longitudinal weld seam. Fabricated from SA387-D material and designed for a superheater outlet temperature of 566 deg C, the 11.4 cm thick header had operated for approximately 187,000 h at the time of the failure. Discussion focuses on the results of a metallographic examination of boat samples removed from the longitudinal seam weldment in the vicinity of the failure and at other areas of the header where peak temperatures were believed to have been reached. The long-term mechanical properties of the service-exposed base metal and creep-damaged weld metal were determined by creep testing. Based on the utility's decision to replace the header within one to three years, an isostress overtemperature lead specimen approach was taken, whereby failure of a test specimen in the laboratory would precede failures in the plant. These tests revealed approximately a 2:1 difference in life for the base metal as compared to weld metal.

This article focuses on the life assessment methods for elevated-temperature failure mechanisms and metallurgical instabilities that reduce life or cause loss of function or operating time of high-temperature components, namely, gas turbine blade, and power plant piping and tubing. The article discusses metallurgical instabilities of steel-based alloys and nickel-base superalloys. It provides information on several life assessment methods, namely, the life fraction rule, parameter-based assessments, the thermal-mechanical fatigue, coating evaluations, hardness testing, microstructural evaluations, the creep cavitation damage assessment, the oxide-scale-based life prediction, and high-temperature crack growth methods.

This article reviews the applied aspects of creep and stress-rupture failures. It discusses the microstructural changes and bulk mechanical behavior of classical and nonclassical creep behavior. The article provides a description of microstructural changes and damage from creep deformation, including stress-rupture fractures. It also describes metallurgical instabilities, such as aging and carbide reactions, and evaluates the complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction. The article concludes with a discussion on thermal fatigue and creep fatigue failures.

The principal types of elevated-temperature mechanical failure are creep and stress rupture, stress relaxation, low- and high-cycle fatigue, thermal fatigue, tension overload, and combinations of these, as modified by environment. This article briefly reviews the applied aspects of creep-related failures, where the mechanical strength of a material becomes limited by creep rather than by its elastic limit. The majority of information provided is applicable to metallic materials, and only general information regarding creep-related failures of polymeric materials is given. The article also reviews various factors related to creep behavior and associated failures of materials used in high-temperature applications. The complex effects of creep-fatigue interaction, microstructural changes during classical creep, and nondestructive creep damage assessment of metallic materials are also discussed. The article describes the fracture characteristics of stress rupture. Information on various metallurgical instabilities is also provided. The article presents a description of thermal-fatigue cracks, as distinguished from creep-rupture cracks.

This article provides an overview of the structural design process and discusses the life-limiting factors, including material defects, fabrication practices, and stress. It details the role of a failure investigator in performing nondestructive inspection. The article provides information on fatigue life assessment, elevated-temperature life assessment, and fitness-for-service life assessment.

Life assessment of structural components is used to avoid catastrophic failures and to maintain safe and reliable functioning of equipment. The failure investigator's input is essential for the meaningful life assessment of structural components. This article provides an overview of the structural design process, the failure analysis process, the failure investigator's role, and how failure analysis of structural components integrates into the determination of remaining life, fitness-for-service, and other life assessment concerns. The topics discussed include industry perspectives on failure and life assessment of components, structural design philosophies, the role of the failure analyst in life assessment, and the role of nondestructive inspection. They also cover fatigue life assessment, elevated-temperature life assessment, fitness-for-service life assessment, brittle fracture assessments, corrosion assessments, and blast, fire, and heat damage assessments.

This article first provides an overview of the types of mechanical fasteners. This is followed by sections providing information on fastener quality and counterfeit fasteners, as well as fastener loads. Then, the article discusses common causes of fastener failures, namely environmental effects, manufacturing discrepancies, improper use, or incorrect installation. Next, it describes fastener failure origins and fretting. Types of corrosion in threaded fasteners and their preventive measures are then covered. The performance of fasteners at elevated temperatures is addressed. Further, the article discusses the types of rivet, blind fastener, and pin fastener failures. Finally, it provides information on the mechanism of fastener failures in composites.

A fire in a storage yard engulfed several propane delivery trucks, causing one of them to explode. A series of elevated-temperature stress-rupture tears developed along the top of the truck-mounted tank as it was heated by the fire. Unstable fracture then occurred suddenly along the length of the tank and around both end caps, following the girth welds that connect them to the center portion of the tank. The remaining contents of the tank were suddenly released, aerosolized, and combusted, creating a powerful boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE). Based on the metallography of the tank pieces, the approximate tank temperature at the onset of explosion was determined. Metallurgical analysis provided additional insights as well as a framework for making tanks less susceptible to this destructive failure mechanism.

One inch diam Type 304 stainless steel piping was designed to carry containment atmosphere samples to an analyzer to monitor hydrogen and oxygen levels during operational and the design basis accident conditions that are postulated to occur in a boiling water reactor. Only one of six lines in the system had thru-wall cracks. Shallow incipient cracks were detected at the lowest elevations of one other line. The balance of the system had no signs of SCC attack. Chlorides and corrosion deposits in varying amounts were found throughout the system. The failure mechanism was transgranular, chloride, stress-corrosion cracking. Replacement decisions were based on the presence of SCC attack or heavy corrosion deposits indicative of extended exposure time to chloride-contaminated water. The existing uncracked pipe, about 75 percent of the piping in the system, was retained despite the presence of low level surface chlorides. Controls were implemented to insure that temperatures are kept below 150 deg F, or, walls of the pipe are moisture-free or the cumulative wetted period will never exceed 30 h.

A pressure vessel failed causing an external fire on a nine-story coke gasifier in a refinery power plant. An investigation revealed that the failure began as cracking in the gasifier internals, which led to bulging and stress rupture of the vessel shell, and the escape of hot syngas, setting off the fire. The failure mechanisms include stress relaxation cracking of a large diameter Incoloy 825 tube, stress rupture of a 4.65 in. thick chromium steel shell wall, and the oxidation of chromium steel exposed to hot syngas. The gasifier process and operating conditions that contributed to the high-temperature degradation were also analyzed and are discussed.

A main steam pipe was found to be leaking due to a large circumferential crack in a pipe-to-fitting weld in one of two steam leads between the superheater outlet nozzles and the turbine stop valves (a line made of SA335-P22 material). The main crack surface was found to be rough, oriented about normal to the outside surface, and had a dark oxidized appearance. The cracking was found to be predominantly intergranular. Distinct shiny bands that etched slower than the remainder of the sample at the top of each individual weld bead were revealed by microscopic examination. These bands were found contain small cracks and microvoids. A mechanism of intergranular creep rupture at elevated temperature was identified as a result of a series of stress-rupture and tensile tests. It was revealed by the crack shape that cracking initiated on the pipe exterior, then propagated inward and in the circumferential direction in response to a bending moment load. It was concluded that the primary cause of failure was the occurrence of bending stresses that exceeded the stress levels predicted by design calculations and that were higher than the maximum allowable primary membrane stress.

A failure of an aboveground storage tank occurred due to external corrosion of the tank floor. The liquid asphalt tank operated at elevated temperatures (approximately 177 deg C, or 350 deg F) and had been in service for six years. Cathodic protection (rectifiers) had been installed since start-up of the tank operation. It was noted, however, that some operational problems with the rectifier may have interrupted its protection. Investigation (visual inspection, on-site examination and testing, EDS analysis of scale deposits, and MIC testing of the soil) supported the conclusion that corrosion may have been caused by an interruption in cathodic protection. The effectiveness of cathodic protection on established microbial deposits is questionable. Recommendations included ultrasonically testing the tank floor and replacing portions based on the remaining wall thickness. Doubling the wall thickness of the floor plates was also recommended.

During disassembly of an engine that was to be modified, a fractured turbine blade was found. When the fracture was examined at low magnification, it was observed that a fatigue fracture had originated on the concave side of the leading edge and had progressed slightly more than halfway from the leading edge to the trailing edge on the concave surface before ultimate failure occurred in dynamic tension. Analysis (including visual inspection, SEM, and 250x/500x micrographic examination) supported the conclusions that the blades failed due to thermal fatigue. Recommendations included application of a protective coating to the blades, provided the coating was sufficiently ductile to avoid cracking during operation to prevent surface oxidation. Such a coating would also alleviate thermal differentials, provided the thermal conductivity of the coating exceeded that of the base metal. It was also determined that directionally solidified blades could minimize thermal fatigue cracking by eliminating intersection of grain boundaries with the surface. However, this improvement would be more costly than applying a protective coating.

A section of clear polymeric tubing failed while in service. The failed sample had been used in a chemical transport application. The tubing had also been exposed to periods of elevated temperature as part of the operation. The tubing was specified to be a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resin plasticized with trioctyl trimellitate. Investigation included visual inspection, micro-FTIR in the ATR mode, and thermogravimetric analysis. The spectrum on the failed tubing exhibited absorption bands indicative of a PVC resin containing an adipate-based plasticizer. Thermograms of the failed pieces and a reference sample of tubing that performed well showed that the reference material contained a trimellitate-based plasticizer and that the failed material contained an adipate-based material. The conclusion was that the failed tubing had been produced from a formulation that did not comply with the specified material and, as a result, was not as thermally stable as the reference material.

This article provides some new developments in elevated-temperature and life assessments. It is aimed at providing an overview of the damage mechanisms of concern, with a focus on creep, and the methodologies for design and in-service assessment of components operating at elevated temperatures. The article describes the stages of the creep curve, discusses processes involved in the extrapolation of creep data, and summarizes notable creep constitutive models and continuum damage mechanics models. It demonstrates the effects of stress relaxation and redistribution on the remaining life and discusses the Monkman-Grant relationship and multiaxiality. The article further provides information on high-temperature metallurgical changes and high-temperature hydrogen attack and the steps involved in the remaining-life prediction of high-temperature components. It presents case studies on heater tube creep testing and remaining-life assessment, and pressure vessel time-dependent stress analysis showing the effect of stress relaxation at hot spots.

Gas turbines and other types of combustion turbomachinery are susceptible to hot corrosion at elevated temperatures. Two such cases resulting in the failure of a gas turbine component were investigated to learn more about the hot corrosion process and the underlying failure mechanisms. Each component was analyzed using optical and scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, mechanical testing, and nondestructive techniques. The results of the investigation provide insights on the influence of temperature, composition, and microstructure and the contributing effects of high-temperature oxidation on the hot corrosion process. Preventative measures are also discussed.

The metallurgical condition of a cylindrical induction melter (CIM) vessel was evaluated after approximately 375 h of operation over a two-year span at temperatures between 1400 to 1500 deg C. Wall thinning and significant grain growth was observed in the lower portion of the conical section and the drain tube. No through-wall penetrations were found in the cylindrical and conical sections of the CIM vessel and only one leak site was identified in the drain tube. Failure of the drain tube was associated with localized overheating and creep. The observed degradation resulted from cumulative service at elevated temperature. A recommendation was made to implement a support for the conical section of the CIM and to increase the wall thickness of the drain tube. Thus, the possibility of drain tube misalignment in the induction coils and localized over heating will be minimized. In addition, the use of grain stabilized Pt/Rh alloy should be evaluated as a method to prevent grain growth.

This article describes the characteristics of tubing of heat exchangers with respect to general corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, selective leaching, and oxygen-cell attack, with examples. It illustrates the examination of failed parts of heat exchangers by using sample selection, visual examination, microscopic examination, chemical analysis, and mechanical tests. The article explains corrosion fatigue of tubing of heat exchangers caused by aggressive environment and cyclic stress. It also discusses the effects of design, welding practices, and elevated temperatures on the failures of heat exchangers.

An aircraft engine in which an in-flight fire had occurred was dismantled and examined. A bracket assembly fabricated from 2024 aluminum, one of several failed components, was of prime interest because of apparent heat damage. Scanning electron microscopy was used to compare laboratory-induced fractures made at room and elevated temperatures with the bracket failure. The service failure exhibited grain separation and loss of delineation of the grain boundaries due to melting. SEM revealed deep voids between grains and tendrils that connected grains, which resulted from surface tension during melting. Microscopic examination of polished, etched section through the fractured surface verified intergranular separation and breakdown of grain facets. The absence of any reduction of thickness on the bracket assembly at the point of fracture, along with evidence of intense heat at this point, indicated that little stress had been applied to the part. Comparisons of the service failure and laboratory-induced failures in conjunction with macroscopic and metallographic observations showed that the bracket assembly failed because an intense, localized flame had melted the material.