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computer-controlled hammers
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006761
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... to compute the Vickers hardness (HV). The hardness number is actually based on the surface area of the indent itself divided by the applied force, giving hardness units of kgf/mm 2 . In the Knoop test, the indenter is elongated in one direction; thus, only the long diagonal is measured and the Knoop hardness...
Abstract
Mechanical testing is an evaluative tool used by the failure analyst to collect data regarding the macro- and micromechanical properties of the materials being examined. This article provides information on a few important considerations regarding mechanical testing that the failure analyst must keep in mind. These considerations include the test location and orientation, the use of raw material certifications, the certifications potentially not representing the hardware, and the determination of valid test results. The article introduces the concepts of various mechanical testing techniques and discusses the advantages and limitations of each technique when used in failure analysis. The focus is on various types of static load testing, hardness testing, and impact testing. The testing types covered include uniaxial tension testing, uniaxial compression testing, bend testing, hardness testing, macroindentation hardness, microindentation hardness, and the impact toughness test.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.9781627082952
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006819
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... that will be placed in cyclic service to mitigate fatigue damage and to optimize damage tolerance and useful operating life. Modern computing capabilities also make detailed analytical and design by analysis (DBA) techniques feasible for critical fatigue problems. For in-service equipment that originally may not have...
Abstract
This article offers an overview of fatigue fundamentals, common fatigue terminology, and examples of damage morphology. It presents a summary of relevant engineering mechanics, cyclic plasticity principles, and perspective on the modern design by analysis (DBA) techniques. The article reviews fatigue assessment methods incorporated in international design and post construction codes and standards, with special emphasis on evaluating welds. Specifically, the stress-life approach, the strain-life approach, and the fracture mechanics (crack growth) approach are described. An overview of high-cycle welded fatigue methods, cycle-counting techniques, and a discussion on ratcheting are also offered. A historical synopsis of fatigue technology advancements and commentary on component design and fabrication strategies to mitigate fatigue damage and improve damage tolerance are provided. Finally, the article presents practical fatigue assessment case studies of in-service equipment (pressure vessels) that employ DBA methods.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006822
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
.... and Fessler R. , Hydrogen Stress Cracking Overview and Controls , Sixth Symposium on Line Pipe Research , American Gas Association, Inc. , 1979 , p Y-1 to Y-25 39. “ Specification for Line Pipe ,” API 5L, 46th ed. , American Petroleum Institute , April 2018 40. “ Petroleum...
Abstract
This article discusses the failure analysis of several steel transmission pipeline failures, describes the causes and characteristics of specific pipeline failure modes, and introduces pipeline failure prevention and integrity management practices and methodologies. In addition, it covers the use of transmission pipeline in North America, discusses the procedures in pipeline failure analysis investigation, and provides a brief background on the most commonly observed pipeline flaws and degradation mechanisms. A case study related to hydrogen cracking and a hard spot is also presented.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003562
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... by the normal force also oscillating to the extent that the surfaces lose contact in each cycle. This leads to a hammering effect, which is termed impact fatigue . In this case, the phase relationship between the two motions can be an important factor. Other terms that have been used to designate fretting...
Abstract
This article reviews the general characteristics of fretting wear in mechanical components with an emphasis on steel. It focuses on the effects of physical variables and the environment on fretting wear. The variables include the amplitude of slip, normal load, frequency of vibration, type of contact and vibration, impact fretting, surface finish, and residual stresses. The form, composition, and role of the debris are briefly discussed. The article also describes the measurement, mechanism, and prevention of fretting wear. It concludes with several examples of failures related to fretting wear.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006792
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
.... , Formation of White Etching Cracks at Manganese Sulfide (MnS) Inclusions in Bearing Steel due to Hammering Impact Loading , Wind Energy , Vol 19 ( No. 10 ), 2016 , p 1903 – 1915 10.1002/we.1958 75. Evans M.-H. , Richardson A.D. , Wang L. , and Wood R.J.K. , Serial Sectioning...
Abstract
Rolling-contact fatigue (RCF) is a common failure mode in components subjected to rolling or rolling-sliding contact. This article provides a basic understanding of RCF and a broad overview of materials and manufacturing techniques commonly used in industry to improve component life. A brief discussion on coatings to improve surface-initiated fatigue and wear is included, due to the similarity to RCF and the increasing criticality of this failure mode. The article presents a working knowledge of Hertzian contact theory, describes the life prediction of rolling-element bearings, and provides information on physics and testing of rolling-contact fatigue. Processes commonly used to produce bearings for demanding applications are also covered.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006834
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... 50 120 Plane grinding machine 55 130 Railcar bearings 60 140 Screens 80 175 Hammer crushers 60 140 Stone crushers 80 175 Impact crushers 80 175 Vibration motors 70 160 Wire-drawing calendar 65 150 Paper machine drum 55 130 Electrical driving motor 80...
Abstract
This article is dedicated to the fields of mechanical engineering and machine design. It also intends to give a nonexhaustive view of the preventive side of the failure analysis of rolling-element bearings (REBs) and of some of the developments in terms of materials and surface engineering. The article presents the nomenclature, numbering systems, and worldwide market of REBs as well as provides description of REBs as high-tech machine components. It discusses heat treatments, performance, and properties of bearing materials. The processes involved in the examination of failed bearings are also explained. Finally, the article discusses in detail the characteristics and prevention of the various types of failures of REBs: wear, fretting, corrosion, plastic flow, rolling-contact fatigue, and damage. The article includes an Appendix, which lists REB-related abbreviations, association websites, and ISO standards.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001810
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... in hours. Examination of Failed Bearings If a bearing fails to meet its predicted life requirement, the analyst must discover the cause of damage that led to failure and recommend measures that will eliminate or control this damage. The influence of uncontrolled or unknown factors that can...
Abstract
Rolling-element bearings use rolling elements interposed between two raceways, and relative motion is permitted by the rotation of these elements. This article presents an overview of bearing materials, bearing-load ratings, and an examination of failed bearings. Rolling-element bearings are designed on the principle of rolling contact rather than sliding contact; frictional effects, although low, are not negligible, and lubrication is essential. The article lists the typical characteristics and causes of several types of failures. It describes failure by wear, failure by fretting, failure by corrosion, failure by plastic flow, failure by rolling-contact fatigue, and failure by damage. The article discusses the effects of fabrication practices, heat treatment and hardness of bearing components, and lubrication of rolling-element bearings with a few examples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.9781627083294
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003524
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... of background data on the manufacturing and fabricating history of a component should begin with obtaining specifications and drawings and should encompass all the design aspects of the failed part as well as all manufacturing and fabrication details—machining, welding, heat treating, coating, quality-control...
Abstract
This article describes the preliminary stages and general procedures, techniques, and precautions employed in the investigation and analysis of metallurgical failures that occur in service. The most common causes of failure characteristics are described for fracture, corrosion, and wear failures. The article provides information on the synthesis and interpretation of results from the investigation. Finally, it presents key guidelines for conducting a failure analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006812
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... part failure Causes Type of failure Numbers Low water cut-off Faulty design fabrication or installation Corrosion or erosion Operator error or poor maintenance Burner failure Pressure control failure Other Burned or overheated Collapsed inward Combination...
Abstract
This article discusses pressure vessels, piping, and associated pressure-boundary items of the types used in nuclear and conventional power plants, refineries, and chemical-processing plants. It begins by explaining the necessity of conducting a failure analysis, followed by the objectives of a failure analysis. Then, the article discusses the processes involved in failure analysis, including codes and standards. Next, fabrication flaws that can develop into failures of in-service pressure vessels and piping are covered. This is followed by sections discussing in-service mechanical and metallurgical failures, environment-assisted cracking failures, and other damage mechanisms that induce cracking failures. Finally, the article provides information on inspection practices.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006829
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
.... , and Kozii N.V. , Wear of Materials in Fretting Corrosion in Connection with Conditions of Vibrocontact Interaction , Fiz. Khim. Mekh. Mater. , Vol 21 , 1985 , p 71 – 75 10.1007/BF00730607 82. de Pannemaecker A. , Attia H. , and Williams G. , A Novel Acceleration-Controlled...
Abstract
Fretting is a wear phenomenon that occurs between two mating surfaces; initially, it is adhesive in nature, and vibration or small-amplitude oscillation is an essential causative factor. Fretting generates wear debris, which oxidizes, leading to a corrosion-like morphology. This article focuses on fretting wear related to debris formation and ejection. It reviews the general characteristics of fretting wear, with an emphasis on steel. The review covers fretting wear in mechanical components, various parameters that affect fretting; quantification of wear induced by fretting; and the experimental results, map approach, measurement, mechanism, and prevention of fretting wear. This review is followed by several examples of failures related to fretting wear.