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Book Chapter
Effects of Composition, Processing, and Structure on Properties of Engineering Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006915
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... separated as those of immiscible blends. These blends exhibit transition temperatures that are shifted from those of the component polymers. The properties of both immiscible and partially miscible blends are sensitive to composition and processing conditions. Immiscible and partially miscible blends...
Abstract
This article provides practical information and data on property development in engineering plastics. It discusses the effects of composition on submolecular and higher-order structure and the influence of plasticizers, additives, and blowing agents. It examines stress-strain curves corresponding to soft-and-weak, soft-and-tough, hard-and-brittle, and hard-and-tough plastics and temperature-modulus plots representative of polymers with different degrees of crystallinity, cross-linking, and polarity. It explains how viscosity varies with shear rate in polymer melts and how processes align with various regions of the viscosity curve. It discusses the concept of shear sensitivity, the nature of viscoelastic properties, and the electrical, chemical, and optical properties of different plastics. It also reviews plastic processing operations, including extrusion, injection molding, and thermoforming, and addresses related considerations such as melt viscosity and melt strength, crystallization, orientation, die swell, melt fracture, shrinkage, molded-in stress, and polymer degradation.
Image
Schematic of the wear process of fiber-reinforced epoxy composite. Adapted ...
Available to PurchasePublished: 15 May 2022
Image
Materials performance as a result of the interactions among composition, pr...
Available to PurchasePublished: 15 January 2021
Fig. 33 Materials performance as a result of the interactions among composition, processing, structure, and properties. Source: Ref 41
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Image
Materials performance as a result of the interactions among composition, pr...
Available to PurchasePublished: 01 January 2002
Fig. 37 Materials performance as a result of the interactions among composition, processing, structure, and properties. Source: Ref 40
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Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001595
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... as an independent variable and the composition as a dependent variable. Clearly, controls such as material and purchasing specifications can be successfully implemented to obtain steel that will yield predictable and suitable post-processing properties for component manufacture. In commercial failure analysis...
Abstract
Hardenability evaluation is typically applied to heat treatment process control, but can also augment standard metallurgical failure analysis techniques for steel components. A comprehensive understanding of steel hardenability is an essential complement to the skills of the metallurgical failure analyst. The empirical information supplied by hardenability analysis can provide additional processing and service insight to the investigator. The intent of this paper is to describe some applications of steel thermal response concepts in failure analysis, and several case studies are included to illustrate these applications.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006936
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... at the same time [ Fig. 5 ]), and the computer processing requirements are less demanding. This makes the linear array system a much less expensive alternative that is ideally suited for finding defects such as delaminations that are common in composite materials. Fig. 5 Phased array linear. Example...
Abstract
Of the many different nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques, ultrasonic inspection continues to be the leading nondestructive method for inspecting composite materials, because measurements can be quantitative and the typical defect geometries and orientations lend themselves to detection and characterization. This article focuses on the three common methods for ultrasonic nondestructive inspection of plastics, namely pitch-catch, through-transmission, and pulse-echo, as well as the three basic types of ultrasonic NDE scans: the A-scan, B-scan, and C-scan. The discussion includes the linear and phased array systems that are sometimes used for large-scale inspection tasks to reduce scan times, the various gating and image processing techniques, and how ultrasonic data are interpreted and presented. A brief section on future trends in ultrasonic inspection is presented at the end of the article.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001365
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... from the original casting process. Surface repair welds had been used to fill in or cover over larger shrinkage cavities. It was recommended that more stringent visual and nondestructive examination criteria be established for the castings. A743 Electric power generation Repair welds Rotary...
Abstract
An investigation was conducted to determine the cause of numerous cracks and other defects on the surface of a cast ASTM A743 grade CA-15 stainless steel main boiler feed pump impeller. The surface was examined using a stereomicroscope, and macrofractography was conducted on several cross sections removed from the impeller body. Areas that appeared to have the most severe surface damage were sectioned, fractured open, and examined using SEM. The chemistry of the impeller and an apparent repair weld were also analyzed. The examination indicated that the cracks were shrinkage voids from the original casting process. Surface repair welds had been used to fill in or cover over larger shrinkage cavities. It was recommended that more stringent visual and nondestructive examination criteria be established for the castings.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003529
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... understands the history of the component, so that it may be prepared for analysis properly. This article also describes some special analytical techniques, including field composition checkers and some nondestructive methods that can be used for in-process sorting that becomes necessary when a failure...
Abstract
This article describes some of the common elemental composition analysis methods and explains the concept of referee and economy test methods in failure analysis. It discusses different types of microchemical analyses, including backscattered electron imaging, energy-dispersive spectrometry, and wavelength-dispersive spectrometry. The article concludes with information on specimen handling.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006916
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... controlled, the viscosity, curing rate, and final cured properties such as the Tg and moduli might not be optimal. Temperature control in the mold is critical to achieving good flow before gelation and fast cure kinetics, resulting in a near-fully cured final part. For many composite processes, prepregs...
Abstract
This article focuses on manufacturing-related failures of injection-molded plastic parts, although the concepts apply to all plastic manufacturing processes It provides detailed examples of failures due to improper material handling, drying, mixing of additives, and molecular packing and orientation. It also presents examples of failures stemming from material degradation improper use of metal inserts, weak weld lines, insufficient curing of thermosets, and inadequate mixing and impregnation in the case of thermoset composites.
Book Chapter
Case of Metal Dusting on HK40 HyL III Radiant Pipe Heat Exchanger
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001714
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
... it to iron sponge at process temperature. The plant can make 1.000.000 tons of iron sponge per year. Reductor gases contain CO and H 2 and some amounts of CO 2 and H 2 O. This composition is obtained by mixing of reformer gas (fresh gas from reformer) with recycle gas. The CO 2 content of recycle gas...
Abstract
In a HyL III heat exchanger's radiant pipes, metal dusting reduced the pipe thickness from 8.5 to 3 mm in just nine months, leaving craters on the inner surface. The pipes are fabricated from HK 40 alloy. The heated gas (400 to 800 deg C) consisted of CO, CO2, and H2, with a 4:1 CO/CO2 ratio. Metallographic investigations revealed that the surface of the attacked pipes consisted of (Cr, Fe) carbide. The metal dusting was the result of a decomposition process (CO to CO2 + C) that deposited C on the pipe surface. Because of the high temperature, the C subsequently diffused through the surface oxide layer (Cr2O3), triggering a succession of reactions that led to pitting and the formation of craters.
Book Chapter
Degradation of Thermal Barrier Coated Superalloy Component During Service
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001829
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... composition. However, the spallation of the top coat during operation changes this situation. When the bond coat is exposed directly to operating environments including high temperature and thermal fatigue, degradations by mechanical and thermal causes proceed faster and accelerate the degradation process...
Abstract
An investigation was conducted to better understand the time-dependent degradation of thermal barrier coated superalloy components in gas turbines. First-stage vanes are normally subjected to the highest gas velocities and temperatures during operation, and were thus the focus of the study. The samples that were analyzed had been operating at 1350 °C in a gas turbine at a combined-cycle generating plant. They were regenerated once, then used for different lengths of time. The investigation included chemical analysis, scanning electron microscopy, SEM/energy dispersive spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction. It was shown that degradation is driven by chemical and mechanical differences, oxide growth, depletion, and recrystallization, the combined effect of which results in exfoliation, spallation, and mechanical thinning.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c0046022
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... Abstract A forged aluminum alloy 2014-T6 catapult-hook attachment fitting (anodized by the chromic acid process to protect it from corrosion) from a naval aircraft broke in service. Spectrographic analysis, visual examination, microscopic examination, and tensile analysis showed minute cracks...
Abstract
A forged aluminum alloy 2014-T6 catapult-hook attachment fitting (anodized by the chromic acid process to protect it from corrosion) from a naval aircraft broke in service. Spectrographic analysis, visual examination, microscopic examination, and tensile analysis showed minute cracks on the inside surface of a bearing hole, and small areas of pitting corrosion were visible on the exterior surface of the fitting. The analysis also revealed a small number of rosettes, suggestive of eutectic melting, in an otherwise normal structure. These examinations and analyses support the conclusion that the presence of chromic acid stain on the fracture surface proved that the forging had cracked before anodizing. This suggest that the crack initiated during straightening, either after machining or after heat treatment. The structure and composition of the alloy appear to have been acceptable. Ductility was acceptable so rosettes found in the microstructure are believed to have been nondamaging. Had they contributed to the failure, the ductility would have been very low. The recommendations included inspection for cracks and revising the manufacturing process to include a fluorescent liquid-penetrant inspection before anodizing, because chromic acid destroys the penetrant. This inspection would reduce the possibility of cracked parts being used in service.
Book Chapter
Rapid Pitting Failure of Type 304 Stainless Steel Pipework
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001064
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... hydrotesting procedures was recommended to prevent similar failures. Bacterial corrosion Chemical processing equipment, corrosion Leakage Pipe, corrosion 304 UNS S30400 Biological corrosion Pitting corrosion Background The type 304 stainless steel pipelines, vessels, and tanks...
Abstract
Several hundred leaks were reported in the type 304 stainless steel pipelines, vessels, and tanks of a chemical plant at a tropical location within a few weeks after startup. Investigation of the failure involved a site visit, metallographic examination and analysis of the material, analysis of hydrotest waters, and microbiological examination of slime that had formed in certain pipework sections. It was determined that the failure resulted from microbially induced corrosion promoted by the use of poor-quality hydrotest water and uncontrolled hydrotesting practice. Use of appropriate hydrotesting procedures was recommended to prevent similar failures.
Book Chapter
Corrosion and Cracking of the Internal Surfaces of a Black Liquor Digester
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001049
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
..., which are natural components of wood. The batch process begins with filling the vessel ( Fig. 1 ) with wood chips and white and black liquor. This slurry is heated to 205 °C (400 °F) under a pressure of 965 kPa (140 psi) for approximately 2 1 2 h. The digested material is then discharged...
Abstract
Routine inspections of a carbon steel wood pulp digester revealed a sharply increasing number of cracks in the overlay metal on the internal surface of the digester after 1 and 2 years of service. The weld overlay was composed of type 309 stainless steel on the top fourth of the digester and of a proprietary high-nickel material on the bottom three-fourths. Examination revealed three distinct modes of deterioration. General corrosion was linked to the use of unspecified overlay metal. Cracking resulted during installation from the use of a material susceptible to hot cracking. Deep corrosion fissures then developed at hot crack sites as a result of crevice corrosion. Use of the appropriate overlay material was recommended.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006828
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... and characteristics of heat source) Chemical composition of base metal Cleaning preparation and after-process cleaning Chemical composition of filler metal Joint protection against oxidation flux, bath composition, protective atmospheres Joint temperature and time Joint design/joint geometry, joint...
Abstract
The various methods of furnace, torch, induction, resistance, dip, and laser brazing are used to produce a wide range of highly reliable brazed assemblies. However, imperfections that can lead to braze failure may result if proper attention is not paid to the physical properties of the material, joint design, prebraze cleaning, brazing procedures, postbraze cleaning, and quality control. Factors that must be considered include brazeability of the base metals; joint design and fit-up; filler-metal selection; prebraze cleaning; brazing temperature, time, atmosphere, or flux; conditions of the faying surfaces; postbraze cleaning; and service conditions. This article focuses on the advantages, limitations, sources of failure, and anomalies resulting from the brazing process. It discusses the processes involved in the testing and inspection required of the braze joint or assembly.
Book Chapter
Hot Corrosion of Stainless Steel Grate Bars in Taconite Indurators
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001109
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... Grate bars in the traveling grate indurators in several taconite processing units suffered excessive corrosion during fluxed pellet production. They were made from HH grade stainless steel with a nominal composition of 0.35% C, 25% Cr, and 12% Ni, with the balance iron. The processing of taconite iron...
Abstract
Grate bars in the traveling grate indurators in several taconite processing units suffered excessive corrosion following a conversion from acid to fluxed pellet production procedures. The campaign life of the HH grade cast stainless steel bars was reduced from more than 7 years to approximately 9 months. Several corroded grate bars were examined metallographically and by electron microscopy to determine the causes of the accelerated corrosion. Chemical and X-ray diffraction analyses were also conducted, along with simulation tests to assess the role of alkali chlorides in the corrosion process. The basic cause of degradation was found to be hot corrosion caused by the deposition of alkali sulfates and chlorides. However this degradation may have been aggravated by thermal cycling and abrasion. The source of the salt was impurities in the flux. Two potential solutions were proposed: modification of the processing parameters to reduce the salt deposition and / or change of bar materials to a more resistant alloy.
Book Chapter
Stress-Corrosion Cracking of a Monel 400 Tube
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001775
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... a caustic solution (NaOH) to remove HCl from the stream, before the latter was directed to a burner. Metallographic examination showed that the cracks were intergranular and were frequently branched. Although nominal chemical composition of the component was found within the specified range, energy...
Abstract
A bent Ni-Cu Monel 400 alloy tube, which operated as part of a pipeline in a petrochemical distillery, failed by through-thickness cracking. The pipeline was used to carry a stream of gaseous hydrocarbons containing hydrochloric acid (HCl) into a reaction tower. The tower provided a caustic solution (NaOH) to remove HCl from the stream, before the latter was directed to a burner. Metallographic examination showed that the cracks were intergranular and were frequently branched. Although nominal chemical composition of the component was found within the specified range, energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDXA) indicated significant segregation of sulfur and chlorine along the grain boundaries. Failure was attributed to hypochlorous-acid (HClO)-induced stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). The HClO was formed by the reaction of HCl with atmospheric O 2 that entered the tube during shutdowns and startups. Residual stresses, originating from in situ bend forming of the tube during assembly of the line, provided a driving force for crack growth, and the segregation of sulfur on grain boundaries made the material more susceptible to cracking.
Book Chapter
Boiler Tube Cracked During Bending
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001194
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... Abstract A seamless hot-drawn boiler tube NW 300 of 318 mm OD and 9 mm wall thickness made of steel 15Mo3 was bent with sand filling after preheating allegedly to 1000 deg C. In the process it had cracked repeatedly in the drawn fiber. The composition corresponded to specifications...
Abstract
A seamless hot-drawn boiler tube NW 300 of 318 mm OD and 9 mm wall thickness made of steel 15Mo3 was bent with sand filling after preheating allegedly to 1000 deg C. In the process it had cracked repeatedly in the drawn fiber. The composition corresponded to specifications, but exceptionally high copper content was noticeable. Microstructural examination showed the damage was due to overheating and burning during preheating and bending. Furthermore, crack formation was promoted by precipitation of metallic copper that had penetrated into the austenitic grain boundaries under the influence of tensile stresses that arose during bending. This phenomenon is known as “solder brittleness.”
Book Chapter
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Ring Type Joint of Reactor Pipeline of a Hydrocracker Unit
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001774
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... the formation of polythionic acid in the process gas. ring type pipe joint fracture polythionic acid stainless steel transgranular fracture fractography creep strength 347 (austenitic wrought stainless steel) UNS S34700 321 (austenitic wrought stainless steel) UNS S32100 Introduction...
Abstract
A ring-type joint in a reactor pipeline for a hydrocracker unit had failed. Cracks were observed on the flange and the associated ring gasket during an inspection following a periodic shutdown of the unit. The components were manufactured from stabilized grades of austenitic stainless steel; the flange from type 321, and the ring gasket from 347. Examination revealed that the failure occurred by transgranular stress-corrosion cracking, initiated by the presence of polythionic acid. Detailed metallurgical investigation was subsequently conducted to identify what may have caused the formation of polythionic acid in the process gas.
Book Chapter
Polymer Processing—An Introduction
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006864
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... the CNT is transferred into the extruder and none is lost in the transfer process or sticks to the feed throat. A loss of 2 g of CNT will produce a batch of 1.6 wt% CNT composite—a 20% error in the formulation. The small batch runs are beneficial for trialing new product formulations and making variations...
Abstract
This article discusses technologies focused on processing plastic materials or producing direct tools used in plastics processing. The article focuses on extrusion and injection molding, covering applications, materials and their properties, equipment, processing details, part design guidelines, and special processes. It also covers the functions of the extruder, webline handling, mixing and compounding operations, and process troubleshooting. Thermoforming and mold design are covered. Various other technologies for polymer processing covered in this article are blow molding, rotational molding, compression molding, transfer molding, hand lay-up process, casting, and additive manufacturing.
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