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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006936
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... Abstract Of the many different nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques, ultrasonic inspection continues to be the leading nondestructive method for inspecting composite materials, because measurements can be quantitative and the typical defect geometries and orientations lend themselves...
Abstract
Of the many different nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques, ultrasonic inspection continues to be the leading nondestructive method for inspecting composite materials, because measurements can be quantitative and the typical defect geometries and orientations lend themselves to detection and characterization. This article focuses on the three common methods for ultrasonic nondestructive inspection of plastics, namely pitch-catch, through-transmission, and pulse-echo, as well as the three basic types of ultrasonic NDE scans: the A-scan, B-scan, and C-scan. The discussion includes the linear and phased array systems that are sometimes used for large-scale inspection tasks to reduce scan times, the various gating and image processing techniques, and how ultrasonic data are interpreted and presented. A brief section on future trends in ultrasonic inspection is presented at the end of the article.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003572
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
...Tribo-potential of polymers and composites for variety of applications Table 1 Tribo-potential of polymers and composites for variety of applications Composite material Tribological applications Maximum tribological regime Neat and short fiber reinforced composites (SFRP) Seals...
Abstract
This article reviews the abrasive and adhesive wear failure of several types of reinforced polymers, including particulate-reinforced polymers, short-fiber reinforced polymers (SFRP), continuous unidirectional fiber reinforced polymers (FRP), particulate-filled composites, mixed composites (SFRP and particulate-filled), unidirectional FRP composites, and fabric reinforced composites. Friction and wear performance of the composites, correlation of performance with various materials properties, and studies on wear-of failure mechanisms by scanning electron microscopy are discussed for each of these types.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006869
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... contact pressure acts as an obstacle against the debris, and worn particles escape from the junction of the bearing bodies and affect the frictional behavior as a third-body effect and conversely. Material Properties As a class of composite materials, RPs are considered to be a complex material due...
Abstract
Reinforced polymers (RPs) are widely used in structural, industrial, automotive, and engineering applications due to their ecofriendly nature and the potential to manipulate their properties. This article addresses the technical synthesis of RPs, referring to their tribological behavior, to provide insights into the contribution and interaction of influential parameters on the wear behavior of polymers. It provides a brief discussion on the effects of significant parameters on RP tribology. The article describes abrasive and adhesive wear and provides a theoretical synthesis of the literature regarding the wear mechanisms of RPs. It also describes the synthesis of abrasive wear failure of different types of RPs and highlights the contribution of these influential parameters. The article addresses the synthesis of adhesive wear failure of different types of RPs.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001812
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article discusses different types of mechanical fasteners, including threaded fasteners, rivets, blind fasteners, pin fasteners, special-purpose fasteners, and fasteners used with composite materials. It describes the origins and causes of fastener failures and with illustrative...
Abstract
This article discusses different types of mechanical fasteners, including threaded fasteners, rivets, blind fasteners, pin fasteners, special-purpose fasteners, and fasteners used with composite materials. It describes the origins and causes of fastener failures and with illustrative examples. Fatigue fracture in threaded fasteners and fretting in bolted machine parts are also discussed. The article provides a description of the different types of corrosion, such as atmospheric corrosion and liquid-immersion corrosion, in threaded fasteners. It also provides information on stress-corrosion cracking, hydrogen embrittlement, and liquid-metal embrittlement of bolts and nuts. The article explains the most commonly used protective metal coatings for ferrous metal fasteners. Zinc, cadmium, and aluminum are commonly used for such coatings. The article also illustrates the performance of the fasteners at elevated temperatures and concludes with a discussion on fastener failures in composites.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006946
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... • Frados J. , Ed., Plastics Engineering Handbook , 4th ed. , John Wiley & Sons , 1976 • Harper C.A. , Ed., Handbook of Plastics and Elastomers , McGraw-Hill , 1975 • Pebly H.E. , Glossary of Terms, in Composites , Vol 1 , Engineered Materials Handbook , ASM...
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001818
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article discusses the effect of using unsuitable alloys, metallurgical discontinuities, fabrication practices, and stress raisers on the failure of a pressure vessel. It provides information on pressure vessels made of composite materials and their welding practices. The article...
Abstract
This article discusses the effect of using unsuitable alloys, metallurgical discontinuities, fabrication practices, and stress raisers on the failure of a pressure vessel. It provides information on pressure vessels made of composite materials and their welding practices. The article explains the failure of pressure vessels with emphasis on stress-corrosion cracking, hydrogen embrittlement, brittle and ductile fractures, creep and stress rupture, and fatigue with examples.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006929
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... and specimen edge effects. The important point is the consideration of which water uptake model the material follows. Simple cases, such as homogenous material, absorb moisture uniformly, where the Fickian model applies. Complex systems, such as laminates and composites, exhibit uneven absorption, where...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the physics and math associated with moisture-related failures in plastic components. It develops key equations, showing how they are used to analyze the causes and effects of water uptake, diffusion, and moisture concentration in polymeric materials and resins. It explains how absorbed moisture affects a wide range of properties, including glass transition temperature, flexural and shear modulus,creep, stress relaxation, swelling, tensile and yield strength, and fatigue cracking. It provides relevant data on common polymers, resins, and fiber-resin composites.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006911
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... limit of polymer composites and polymer testing best practices. friction testing lubrication polymers wear rate wear testing TRIBOLOGY is the study of contacting materials in relative motion, more specifically the study of friction, wear, and lubrication ( Ref 1 ). The term tribology...
Abstract
Tribology is the study of contacting materials in relative motion and more specifically the study of friction, wear, and lubrication. This article discusses the classification and the mechanisms of friction, wear, and lubrication of polymers. It describes the tribological applications of polymers and the tribometers and instrumentation used to measure the tribological properties of polymers. The article discusses the processes involved in calculating the wear rate of polymers and the methods of characterization of the sliding interface. It provides information on the pressure and velocity limit of polymer composites and polymer testing best practices.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001760
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... Observation Results Chemical Composition Material Investigation Hardness Measuring <xref rid="c9001760-ref2" ref-type="bibr">[2</xref>, <xref rid="c9001760-ref3" ref-type="bibr">3]</xref> Fractography <xref rid="c9001760-ref4" ref-type="bibr">[4</xref>, <xref rid="c9001760-ref5" ref-type="bibr">5...
Abstract
This article presents a failure analysis of an aluminum cylinder head on an automotive engine. During an endurance test, a crack initiated from the interior wall of a hole in the center of the cylinder head, then propagated through the entire thickness of the component. Metallurgical examination of the crack origin revealed that casting pores played a role in initiating the crack. Stress components, identified by finite element analysis, also played a role, particularly the stresses imposed by the bolt assembly leading to plastic strain. It was concluded that the failure can be prevented by eliminating the bolt hole, using a different type of bolt, or adjusting the fastening torque.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001455
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
..., to provide a composite material having the virtues of both attributes. Bars and sections in H.15 alloy are mostly produced by extrusion, and some material processed in this way has been prone to ,in unusual type of corrosion, to which the description “layer” or “exfoliation corrosion” has been given...
Abstract
Aluminum alloy BS.1476-HE.15 by virtue of its high strength and low density finds application in the form of bars or sections for cranes, bridges, and other such structures where a reduction in dead weight load and inertia stresses is advantageous. Bars and sections in H.15 alloy are mostly produced by extrusion. Some material processed this way has been prone to exfoliation corrosion. Extended aging for 24 h at a temperature of 185 deg C (365 deg F) virtually suppresses the tendency for exfoliation corrosion to develop. Also, the use of a sprayed coating, either of aluminum or Al-1Zn alloy, was effective in halting and preventing this form of attack. While alarming, the appearance of exfoliation corrosion provides a valuable warning to the engineer or inspector before a severe weakening of the particular sections has occurred.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001128
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
.... Testing Procedure and Results Surface Examination Scanning Electron Microscopy/Fractography Fracture toughness testing was performed on composite specimens composed of base, fusion line, and weld materials at 540 °C (1000 °F) in accordance with ASTM Standard E813-87. The cracking plane...
Abstract
Creep crack growth and fracture toughness tests were performed using test material machined from a seam welded ASTM A-155-66 class 1 (2.25Cr-1Mo) steel steam pipe that had been in service for 15 years. The fracture morphology was examined using SEM fractography. Dimpled fracture was found to be characteristic of fracture toughness specimens. Creep crack growth generally followed the fusion line region and was characterized as dimpled fracture mixed with cavities. These fracture morphologies were similar to those of an actual steam pipe. It was concluded that creep crack growth behavior was the prime failure mechanism of seam-welded steam pipes.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001047
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... to 67.95 mm (2.675 in.) thick Ferralium. The compositions of these two stainless steel materials are given in Table 1 . Corrosion occurred in the weld heat-affected zone (HAZ) between the peripheral tubes and the Ferralium floating skirt, in approximately the 6 o'clock position. Tube sheet corrosion...
Abstract
An E-Brite /Ferralium explosively bonded tube sheet in a nitric acid condenser was removed from service because of corrosion. Visual and metallographic examination of tube sheet samples revealed severe cracking in the heat-affected zone between the outer tubes and the weld joining the tube sheet to the floating skirt. Cracks penetrated deep into the tube sheet, and occasionally into the tube walls. The microstructures of both alloys and of the weld appeared normal. Intergranular corrosion characteristic of end-grain attack was apparent. A low dead spot at the skirt / tube sheet joint allowed the Nox to condense and subsequently reboil. This, coupled with repeated repair welding in the area, reduced resistance to acid attack. Intergranular corrosion continued until failure. Recommendations included changing operating parameter inlet to prevent HNO3 condensation outside the inlet and replacement of the floating skirt with virgin material (i.e., material unaffected by weld repairs).
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.usage.c0047343
EISBN: 978-1-62708-236-5
... similar to ASTM A395. Visual examination of the rotor revealed unusually heavy oxidation and thermal fatigue cracking along the edge of the gas passage. Material properties, including microstructure, composition, and hardness, of both the rotor and housing were evaluated to determine the cause of failure...
Abstract
An experimental high-temperature rotary valve was found stuck due to growth and distortion after approximately 100 h. Gas temperatures were suspected to have been high due to overfueled conditions. Both the rotor and housing in which it was stuck were annealed ferritic ductile iron similar to ASTM A395. Visual examination of the rotor revealed unusually heavy oxidation and thermal fatigue cracking along the edge of the gas passage. Material properties, including microstructure, composition, and hardness, of both the rotor and housing were evaluated to determine the cause of failure. The microstructure of the rotor was examined in three regions. The shaft material, the heavy section next to the gas passage and the thin edge of the rotor adjacent to the gas passage. The excessive gas temperatures were responsible for the expansion and distortion that prevented rotation of the rotor. Actual operating temperatures exceeded those intended for this application. The presence of transformation products in the brake-rotor edge indicated that the lower critical temperature had been exceeded during operation.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003529
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... concentrations of elements can cause false readings with many of the common methods. If the chemist has not calibrated with a similar specimen with a higher content than the specimen in question, an analytical error could easily go undetected. Many composition analysis methods must be calibrated with a material...
Abstract
This article describes some of the common elemental composition analysis methods and explains the concept of referee and economy test methods in failure analysis. It discusses different types of microchemical analyses, including backscattered electron imaging, energy-dispersive spectrometry, and wavelength-dispersive spectrometry. The article concludes with information on specimen handling.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001394
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... presumed. Spectroscope examination showed this particular composition (Fe-23Cr-18Ni-1.8Mo-1.2Si) did not conform to a standard specification and is apparently a proprietary alloy. It was evident that the particular mode of failure was related to the inherent structure of the material. Corrosion...
Abstract
A 1-in. diam pump spindle fractured within the length covered by the boss of the impeller which was attached to the spindle by means of an axial screw. The pump had been in use in a chemical plant handling mixtures of organic liquids and dilute sulfuric acid having a pH value of 2 to 4 at temperatures of 80 to 90 deg C (176 to 194 deg F). The fracture was unusual in that it was of a fibrous nature, the fibers-which were orientated radially-were readily detachable. The surface of the spindle adjacent to the fracture had an etched appearance and the mode of cracking in this region suggested that failure resulted from an intergranular attack. Subsequent microscope examination confirmed the generally intergranular mode of failure. A macro-etched section near the fracture revealed a radial arrangement of columnar crystals, indicating that the spindle was a cast and not a wrought product as had been presumed. Spectroscope examination showed this particular composition (Fe-23Cr-18Ni-1.8Mo-1.2Si) did not conform to a standard specification and is apparently a proprietary alloy. It was evident that the particular mode of failure was related to the inherent structure of the material.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001811
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
...Chemical composition of the pipe material Table 1 Chemical composition of the pipe material Chemical composition, wt.% Elements Sample Standard material 28Cr3SiNiWMoV Fe Balance Balance Cr 2.9 2.8–3.2 Ni 1.0 0.8–1.2 W 0.7 0.8–1.2 Mo 0.8 0.35–0.55 V 0.2...
Abstract
A deformed steel tube was received for failure analysis after buckling during a heat-treat operation. The tube was subjected to various metallurgical tests as well as nondestructive testing to confirm the presence of residual stresses. The microstructure of the tube was found to be homogenous and had no banded structure. However, x-ray diffraction analysis confirmed the presence of up to 6% retained austenite which likely caused the tube to buckle during the 910 °C heat treating procedure.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.homegoods.c0090971
EISBN: 978-1-62708-222-8
... overload fracture due to excessive iron-zinc phase and gross porosity. These conditions acted synergistically to reduce the strength of the material. The composition was nonstandard, and the inherent brittleness suggested that it was unlikely that this material was an intentional proprietary alloy...
Abstract
A die-cast zinc adapter used in a snowthrower failed catastrophically in a brittle overload manner. The component had a chemical composition similar to standard zinc alloy ZA-27 (UNS Z35840), although the iron content was much higher and the copper slightly lower. The mechanical properties and alloy designation were not specified. Investigation (visual inspection, 187x SEM images, unetched 30x images, hardness testing, and chemical analysis) of both the failed adapter and an exemplar casting from known-good lot supported the conclusion that the casting failed as a result of brittle overload fracture due to excessive iron-zinc phase and gross porosity. These conditions acted synergistically to reduce the strength of the material. The composition was nonstandard, and the inherent brittleness suggested that it was unlikely that this material was an intentional proprietary alloy. No recommendations were made.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c0048767
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... were revealed at the edges of the weld metal. It was revealed by chemical analysis of this band that a stainless steel filler metal had been used which produced mixed composition at the weld boundaries. The plating material was revealed to be nickel by chemical analysis. It was concluded that clapper...
Abstract
The clapper in a 250 mm diam disk valve (made from ASTM A36 steel, stress relieved and cadmium plated) fractured at the welded joint between the clapper and a 20 mm diam support rod (also made of same material). The valve contained a stream of gas consisting of 55% H2S, 39% CO2, 5% H2, and 1% hydrocarbons at 40 deg C and 55 kPa during operation. Voids on the fracture surface and evidence of incomplete weld penetration were revealed by examination. Brittle fracture was indicated by the overall appearance through some fatigue beach marks were observed. Very narrow bands of high hardness were revealed at the edges of the weld metal. It was revealed by chemical analysis of this band that a stainless steel filler metal had been used which produced mixed composition at the weld boundaries. The plating material was revealed to be nickel by chemical analysis. It was concluded that clapper failed by fatigue and brittle fracture because it was welded with an incorrect filler metal. A clapper assembly was welded with a low-carbon steel filler metal, then cadmium plated.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.conag.c0065827
EISBN: 978-1-62708-221-1
... composition broke in service. Results of chipper knife field trials Table 1 Results of chipper knife field trials See Example in text. Knife material Average results per run Production per in. of knife Run time, min No. boxes of chips Resharpening time, min Stock removal No. of runs Run...
Abstract
Failure analysis results were employed to identify a better alloy. Chipper knives used in the field to chip logs failed frequently. The knives were made of alloys with a composition of Fe-0.48C-0.30Mn-0.90Si-8.50Cr-1.35Mo-1.20W-0.30V. The development of tougher alloy steel with superior properties was initiated. The nominal composition of Fe-0.50C-0.30Mn-0.40Si-5.00Cr-2.00Mo was developed which achieved the goals of edge retention, resistance to softening under frictional heating, wear resistance, ease of heat treatment, dimensional stability in heat treatment, grindability, and low alloy cost. A chip harvester made from this composition was tested in field with older composition knives. It was found that the new knives outperformed the older knives. The key to the development was interpreted to be careful study of a number of failed knives with different problems used in different types of operations.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001595
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... as an independent variable and the composition as a dependent variable. Clearly, controls such as material and purchasing specifications can be successfully implemented to obtain steel that will yield predictable and suitable post-processing properties for component manufacture. In commercial failure analysis...
Abstract
Hardenability evaluation is typically applied to heat treatment process control, but can also augment standard metallurgical failure analysis techniques for steel components. A comprehensive understanding of steel hardenability is an essential complement to the skills of the metallurgical failure analyst. The empirical information supplied by hardenability analysis can provide additional processing and service insight to the investigator. The intent of this paper is to describe some applications of steel thermal response concepts in failure analysis, and several case studies are included to illustrate these applications.
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