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Book Chapter
Service Lifetime Assessment of Polymeric Products
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006921
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... four of the eight major aging mechanisms, namely environmental stress cracking, chemical degradation, creep, and fatigue, as well as the methods used in product service lifetime assessment for them. Later, several methods of service lifetime prediction that have gained industry-wide acceptance, namely...
Abstract
The lifetime assessment of polymeric products is complicated, and if the methodology utilized leads to inaccurate predictions, the mistakes could lead to financial loss as well as potential loss of life, depending on the service application of the product. This article provides information on the common aging mechanisms of polymeric materials and the common accelerated testing methods used to obtain relevant data that are used with the prediction models that enable service life assessment. Beginning with a discussion of what constitutes a product failure, this article then reviews four of the eight major aging mechanisms, namely environmental stress cracking, chemical degradation, creep, and fatigue, as well as the methods used in product service lifetime assessment for them. Later, several methods of service lifetime prediction that have gained industry-wide acceptance, namely the hydrostatic design basis approach, Miner's rule, the Arrhenius model, and the Paris Law for fatigue crack propagation, are discussed.
Book Chapter
Accelerated Life Testing and Aging
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006909
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... analytical (empirical, physical, or chemical) models. For the analytical model to be useful, the relationship between exposure and changes in material structure and properties should include degradation rates; dependence on environmental factors such as temperature, pressure, moisture content, or applied...
Abstract
Accelerated life testing and aging methodologies are increasingly being used to generate engineering data for determining material property degradation and service life (or fitness for purpose) of plastic materials for hostile service conditions. This article presents an overview of accelerated life testing and aging of unreinforced and fiber-reinforced plastic materials for assessing long-term material properties and life expectancy in hostile service environments. It considers various environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, pressure, weathering, liquid chemicals (i.e., alkalis and acids), ionizing radiation, and biological degradation, along with the combined effects of mechanical stress, temperature, and moisture (including environmental stress corrosion). The article also includes information on the use of accelerated testing for predicting material property degradation and long-term performance.
Book Chapter
Microbial Degradation of Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006866
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... Abstract Microbial degradation in the environment is initiated by abiotic (nonliving physical or chemical) processes. Mechanical weathering and other mechanical processes are the main drivers of the initial degradation. This article presents an overview of weathering and biodegradation...
Abstract
Microbial degradation in the environment is initiated by abiotic (nonliving physical or chemical) processes. Mechanical weathering and other mechanical processes are the main drivers of the initial degradation. This article presents an overview of weathering and biodegradation. It summarizes the main synthetic polymers that are released and available for bacterial and fungal decomposition. The article also presents a detailed discussion on the enzymes that are involved in plastic degradation, and the measurement of polymer degradation.
Book Chapter
Effect of Environment on the Performance of Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006867
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... reagent. Finally, there are some chemicals that cause actual degradation of the polymer, breaking the macromolecular chains, reducing molecular weight, and diminishing polymer properties as a result. This article examines each of these effects. The discussion also covers the effects of surface...
Abstract
With any polymeric material, chemical exposure may have one or more different effects. Some chemicals act as plasticizers, changing the polymer from one that is hard, stiff, and brittle to one which is softer, more flexible, and sometimes tougher. Often these chemicals can dissolve the polymer if they are present in large enough quantity and if the polymer is not crosslinked. Other chemicals can induce environmental stress cracking (ESC), an effect in which brittle fracture of a polymer will occur at a level of stress well below that required to cause failure in the absence of the ESC reagent. Finally, there are some chemicals that cause actual degradation of the polymer, breaking the macromolecular chains, reducing molecular weight, and diminishing polymer properties as a result. This article examines each of these effects. The discussion also covers the effects of surface embrittlement and temperature on polymer performance.
Book Chapter
Discoloration of a Stainless Steel Tube after Pickling
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001626
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
... as adherent organic residue. Analysis by FTIR of the residue revealed detectable levels of two polymeric substances, which were later determined to be construction materials of the pickling tank. The latter conclusion suggests that the polymeric tank underwent chemical degradation from exposure...
Abstract
A type 17-4PH stainless steel tube exhibited brown discoloration after a pickling operation. EDS analysis of the extracted substance revealed relatively high levels of iron and chromium, along with lower amounts of aluminum, silicon, sulfur, chlorine, calcium, manganese, and nickel. The iron, chromium, and nickel are likely in the form of dissolution products from the pickling solution. FTIR analysis revealed the presence of polypropylene and poly(ethylene:propylene). The EDS results showed that the discoloration of the tube was associated with oxidation products of the tube material, as well as adherent organic residue. Analysis by FTIR of the residue revealed detectable levels of two polymeric substances, which were later determined to be construction materials of the pickling tank. It was recommended that more frequent cleaning and/or replacement of the pickling solution be put into place and another type of tank material be considered.
Book Chapter
Failure of a Nylon Filtration Unit
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c0090460
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... of molecular degradation caused by the service conditions. Specifically, the part material had undergone severe chemical attack, including oxidation and hydrolysis, through contact with silver chloride. The source of the silver chloride was not established, but one potential source was photographic silver...
Abstract
A component of a water filtration unit failed while being used in service for approximately eight months. The filter system had been installed in a commercial laboratory, where it was stated to have been used exclusively in conjunction with deionized water. The failed part had been injection molded from a 30% glass-fiber and mineral-reinforced nylon 12 resin. Investigation, including visual inspection, 118x SEM images, 9x micrographs, energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, micro-FTIR in the ATR mode, and TGA, supported the conclusion that the filter component failed as a result of molecular degradation caused by the service conditions. Specifically, the part material had undergone severe chemical attack, including oxidation and hydrolysis, through contact with silver chloride. The source of the silver chloride was not established, but one potential source was photographic silver recovery.
Book Chapter
Effect of Environment on the Performance of Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003550
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... chemicals can induce environmental stress cracking (ESC), an effect in which brittle fracture of a polymer will occur at a level of stress well below that required to cause failure in the absence of the ESC reagent. Finally, there are some chemicals that cause actual degradation of the polymer, breaking...
Abstract
The article commences with an overview of short-term and long-term mechanical properties of polymeric materials. It discusses plasticization, solvation, and swelling in rubber products. The article further describes environmental stress cracking and degradation of polymers. It illustrates how surface degradation of a plain strain tension specimen alters the ductile brittle transition in polyethylene creep rupture. The article concludes with information on the effects of temperature on polymer performance.
Book Chapter
Failure of Polycarbonate/Polyethylene Terephthalate Appliance Housings
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.homegoods.c0090448
EISBN: 978-1-62708-222-8
... had been degraded, producing a reduction in the molecular weight and reducing both the mechanical integrity and chemical-resistance properties of the parts. Crystallization Electrical appliances Grease Housings Injection molding Molding resins Undercrystallization Polycarbonate...
Abstract
Housings (being tested as part of a material conversion) from an electrical appliance failed during an engineering evaluation. They had been injection molded from a commercial polycarbonate/PET blend. Parts produced from the previous material, a nylon 6/6 resin, had consistently passed the testing regimen. Grease was applied liberally within the housing assembly during production. Investigation included visual inspection, 24x SEM images, micro-FTIR in the ATR mode, and analysis using DSC. No signs of material contamination were found, but the thermograms showed a crystallization of the PET resin. The grease present within the housing assembly, analyzed using micro-FTIR, was composed of a hydrocarbon-based oil, a phthalate-based oil, lithium stearate, and an amide-based additive. The conclusion was that the appliance housings failed through environmental stress cracking caused by a phthalate-based oil that was not compatible with the PC portion of the resin blend. Thus, the resin conversion was the root cause of the failures. Additionally, during the injection molding process the molded parts had been undercrystallized, reducing their mechanical strength. More importantly, the resin had been degraded, producing a reduction in the molecular weight and reducing both the mechanical integrity and chemical-resistance properties of the parts.
Book Chapter
Chemical Attack of Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Grips
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.homegoods.c0090427
EISBN: 978-1-62708-222-8
... with glyceride derivatives of fats and oils. This supported the conclusion that the grips failed via brittle fracture associated with severe chemical attack of the ABS resin. A significant level of glyceride derivatives of fatty acids, known to degrade ABS resins, was found on the part surface. Chemical...
Abstract
A set of plastic grips from an electric consumer product failed while in service. The grips had been injection molded from a general-purpose grade of ABS resin. The parts had cracked while in use after apparent embrittlement of the material. Investigation (visual inspection, SEM imaging, and micro-FTIR in the ATR mode) showed that the spectrum representing the grip surface contained absorption bands associated with ABS as well as additional bands of significant intensity. A spectral subtraction removed the bands associated with the ABS resin resulting in a very good match with glyceride derivatives of fats and oils. This supported the conclusion that the grips failed via brittle fracture associated with severe chemical attack of the ABS resin. A significant level of glyceride derivatives of fatty acids, known to degrade ABS resins, was found on the part surface.
Book Chapter
Degradation of Thermal Barrier Coated Superalloy Component During Service
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001829
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
..., and x-ray diffraction. It was shown that degradation is driven by chemical and mechanical differences, oxide growth, depletion, and recrystallization, the combined effect of which results in exfoliation, spallation, and mechanical thinning. turbine vanes thermal degradation high-temperature...
Abstract
An investigation was conducted to better understand the time-dependent degradation of thermal barrier coated superalloy components in gas turbines. First-stage vanes are normally subjected to the highest gas velocities and temperatures during operation, and were thus the focus of the study. The samples that were analyzed had been operating at 1350 °C in a gas turbine at a combined-cycle generating plant. They were regenerated once, then used for different lengths of time. The investigation included chemical analysis, scanning electron microscopy, SEM/energy dispersive spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction. It was shown that degradation is driven by chemical and mechanical differences, oxide growth, depletion, and recrystallization, the combined effect of which results in exfoliation, spallation, and mechanical thinning.
Book Chapter
Thermal Analyses of a Polymer Failure
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.auto.c9001901
EISBN: 978-1-62708-218-1
... to depolymerization if the backbones of the molecules are cleaved, thereby creating new unstable chain-ends. Backbones may be cleaved by chemical, mechanical, radiological, or thermal means. However, the only likely mechanisms for the sensor housing are chemical and/or thermal. In the worst case scenario...
Abstract
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to analyze an automotive polyoxymethylene (POM) sensor housing that was depolymerizing during service. It was found that a combination of heat, oxygen, and sulfuric acid attacked and caused premature failure of the part. POM should not be selected for automotive applications where elevated temperatures and acidic environments can exist. If exposure to acid is suspected, sodium bicarbonate should be applied to neutralize the surrounding environment, followed by copious quantities of water, and repeated until no effervescence is observed.
Book Chapter
Hot Corrosion of Stainless Steel Grate Bars in Taconite Indurators
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001109
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... accumulates with each cycle through the furnace. Metallographic and chemical analyses have clearly established that the grate bar degradation was primarily caused by hot corrosion by molten salts. The molten salt destroyed the ability of the material to maintain a protective oxide scale as a barrier...
Abstract
Grate bars in the traveling grate indurators in several taconite processing units suffered excessive corrosion following a conversion from acid to fluxed pellet production procedures. The campaign life of the HH grade cast stainless steel bars was reduced from more than 7 years to approximately 9 months. Several corroded grate bars were examined metallographically and by electron microscopy to determine the causes of the accelerated corrosion. Chemical and X-ray diffraction analyses were also conducted, along with simulation tests to assess the role of alkali chlorides in the corrosion process. The basic cause of degradation was found to be hot corrosion caused by the deposition of alkali sulfates and chlorides. However this degradation may have been aggravated by thermal cycling and abrasion. The source of the salt was impurities in the flux. Two potential solutions were proposed: modification of the processing parameters to reduce the salt deposition and / or change of bar materials to a more resistant alloy.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of Fatigue Fracture on the Outer Ring of a Cylindrical Roller Bearing in an Air Blower Motor
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001831
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... and contact surfaces. Chemical and thermal properties of the bearing grease were also examined. The investigation revealed that the failure was caused by wear due to dry friction and impact, both of which worsened as a result of high-temperature degradation of the bearing grease. Fatigue cracks initiated...
Abstract
An air blower in an electric power plant failed unexpectedly when a roller bearing in the drive motor fractured along its outer ring. Both rings, as well as the 18 rolling elements, were made from GCr15 bearing steel. The bearing also included a machined brass (MA/C3) cage and was packed with molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2 ) lithium grease. Metallurgical structures and chemical compositions of the bearing’s matrix materials were inspected using a microscope and photoelectric direct reading spectrometer. SEM/EDS was used to examine the local morphology and composition of fracture and contact surfaces. Chemical and thermal properties of the bearing grease were also examined. The investigation revealed that the failure was caused by wear due to dry friction and impact, both of which worsened as a result of high-temperature degradation of the bearing grease. Fatigue cracks initiated in the corners of the outer ring and grew large enough for a fracture to occur.
Book Chapter
Photochemical Aging and Weathering of Polymers—The Basics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006920
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... properties such as tensile strength, color change, haze, or surface gloss. However, the degradation starts on the chemical level and often requires a long time until macroscopic degradation becomes detectable using these common evaluation methods. In recent years, progress has been made in understanding...
Abstract
This article describes the processes involved in photochemical aging and weathering of polymeric materials. It explains how solar radiation, especially in the UV range, combines with atmospheric oxygen, driving photooxidation and the development of unstable photoproducts that cause various types of damage when they decompose, including the scission of carbon bonds and polymer chains. The article illustrates some of the degradation reactions that occur in different polymers and presents an overview of the strategies used to prevent such reactions or otherwise mitigate their effects.
Book Chapter
Intergranular Fatigue Cracking of a Stainless Steel Expansion Joint
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c0046252
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... occurred in welded joints and in unwelded portions of the bellows. The bellows were made by forming the convolution halves from stainless steel sheet, then welding the convolutions together. Evidence from visual examination, liquid penetrant inspection chemical analysis, hardness tests, and metallographic...
Abstract
A type 321 stainless steel bellows expansion joint on a 17-cm (6 in.) OD inlet line (347 stainless) in a gas-turbine test facility cracked during operation. The line carried high-purity nitrogen gas at 1034 kPa (150 psi) with a flow rate of 5.4 to 8.2 kg/s (12 to 18 lb/s). Cracking occurred in welded joints and in unwelded portions of the bellows. The bellows were made by forming the convolution halves from stainless steel sheet, then welding the convolutions together. Evidence from visual examination, liquid penetrant inspection chemical analysis, hardness tests, and metallographic examination of sections etched with Vilella's reagent supports the conclusions that failure of the bellows occurred by intergranular fatigue cracking. Secondary degrading effects on the piping existed as well. Recommendations included the acceptability of Type 321 stainless steel (provided open-cycle testing does not result in surface oxidation and crevices) Although type 347 stainless steel would be better, and Inconel 600 would be an even better choice. Welds would also need modified processing for reheating and annealing. Prevention of oil leakage into the system would minimize carburization of the piping and bellows.
Book Chapter
Effects of Composition, Processing, and Structure on Properties of Engineering Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006915
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... improve mechanical properties, their performance depends on orientation and fiber length, both of which can be affected by processing. Foams In foamed plastics a dispersed gaseous phase is incorporated into the plastic from the physical introduction of air or nitrogen, the degradation of chemical...
Abstract
This article provides practical information and data on property development in engineering plastics. It discusses the effects of composition on submolecular and higher-order structure and the influence of plasticizers, additives, and blowing agents. It examines stress-strain curves corresponding to soft-and-weak, soft-and-tough, hard-and-brittle, and hard-and-tough plastics and temperature-modulus plots representative of polymers with different degrees of crystallinity, cross-linking, and polarity. It explains how viscosity varies with shear rate in polymer melts and how processes align with various regions of the viscosity curve. It discusses the concept of shear sensitivity, the nature of viscoelastic properties, and the electrical, chemical, and optical properties of different plastics. It also reviews plastic processing operations, including extrusion, injection molding, and thermoforming, and addresses related considerations such as melt viscosity and melt strength, crystallization, orientation, die swell, melt fracture, shrinkage, molded-in stress, and polymer degradation.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001628
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
.... Comparative analysis of the fresh and used oil samples showed that the oil underwent some chemical degradation and moisture pickup while in use. Furthermore, some oxidation products from various system components were found in the used oil. Based on all these findings, the following scenario may have happened...
Abstract
A nickel alloy cylinder plated with chromium along its inner liner, installed in a commercial ice cream freezer, showed gray discoloration along its OD surface. The discolored parts exhibited significantly reduced cooling efficiency as compared with new cylinders. During operation, the OD of the cylinder was exposed to liquid ammonia refrigerant containing lubricant from the compressor. The lubricant (mineral oil) was intended to separate from the ammonia and be recirculated through the compressor. Nondestructive portable optical microscopy, XRF, EDS, and XPS analyses showed that the discoloration on the cylinder was associated with metal oxidation products coated with a thin oil film. One of the recommendations was to plate the OD of the cylinder with hard chromium to increase its resistance to erosion. Another recommendation was to reduce the amounts of water contamination in the refrigerant.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006926
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
...) physical effects. Chemical attack occurs when chemical reactions result from the interaction between the environment and polymer molecules. This type of interaction may involve chain scission, the degradation of a polymer main chain, which is an irreversible effect. Crazing and microcracking, which...
Abstract
The susceptibility of plastics to environmental failure, when exposed to organic chemicals, can limit their use in many applications. A combination of chemical and physical factors, along with stress, usually leads to a serious deterioration in properties, even if stress or the chemical environment alone may not appreciably weaken a material. This phenomenon is referred to as environmental stress cracking (ESC). The ESC failure mechanism for a particular plastics-chemical environment combination can be quite complex and, in many cases, is not yet fully understood. This article focuses on two environmental factors that contribute to failure of plastics, namely chemical and physical effects.
Book Chapter
Characterization of Plastics in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003525
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... of thermal oxidation, vinyl, vinylene functionality for photooxidation, and hydroxyl group formation indicating hydrolysis ( Ref 4 ). Case studies showing the effectiveness of FTIR in assessing molecular degradation are presented in examples 1 , 13 , and 15 in this article. Chemical Contact...
Abstract
This article reviews the analytical techniques most commonly used in plastic component failure analysis. These include the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, thermomechanical analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The descriptions of the analytical techniques are supplemented by a series of case studies that include pertinent visual examination results and the corresponding images that aid in the characterization of the failures. The article describes the methods used for determining the molecular weight of a plastic resin. It explains the use of mechanical testing in failure analysis and also describes the considerations in the selection and use of test methods.
Book Chapter
Characterization of Plastics in Failure Analysis
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006933
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... degradation; vinylene functionality for photooxidation; and hydroxyl group formation indicating hydrolysis ( Ref 5 ). Case studies showing the effectiveness of FTIR in assessing molecular degradation are presented in Examples 1, 13, and 15 in Ref 4 . Chemical Contact Similar to the application of FTIR...
Abstract
This article reviews analytical techniques that are most often used in plastic component failure analysis. The description of the techniques is intended to familiarize the reader with the general principles and benefits of the methodologies, namely Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and dynamic mechanical analysis. The article describes the methods for molecular weight assessment and mechanical testing to evaluate plastics and polymers. The descriptions of the analytical techniques are supplemented by a series of case studies to illustrate the significance of each method. The case studies also include pertinent visual examination results and the corresponding images that aided in the characterization of the failures.
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