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body-centered cubic
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Published: 01 January 2002
Fig. 12 Example of unstable rapid fracture in a body-centered cubic (bcc) metal (annealed low-carbon steel). Rapid fracture in this alloy occurs almost completely by microvoid coalescence, but close examination reveals a few areas of brittle cleavage. The bcc structure is not close-packed
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Published: 01 January 2002
Fig. 22 Effect of temperature on toughness and ductility of face-centered cubic (fcc), body-centered cubic (bcc), and hexagonal close-packed (hcp) metals
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Published: 01 January 2002
Fig. 5 Diagram of the temperature dependence of elastic, plastic, and fracture behavior of polycrystalline materials that do not exhibit a solid-state transformation. bcc, body-centered cubic; fcc, face-centered cubic; T , instantaneous absolute temperature; T M , absolute melting
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Image
Published: 01 January 2002
Fig. 21 Simplified deformation behavior (Ashby) maps of unalloyed annealed metals with (a) face-centered cubic crystal structure and (b) body-centered cubic crystal structure. Engineering alloys may behave somewhat differently than unalloyed metals, but these general trends are relatively
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Published: 01 January 2002
Fig. 15 Effect of strain rate on ductile-to-brittle transition temperature in body-centered cubic metals
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Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001033
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... found in the engine was identified as type 304 stainless steel by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. X-ray diffraction of both as-received and engine run screen materials revealed that two phases were present in each: face-centered cubic (fcc) ( a = 0.3607 nm) and body-centered cubic (bcc...
Abstract
An investigation of a Stirling engine after an aborted test run revealed that the regenerator screens had suffered substantial damage. During the run, the individual screens oscillated as the helium working fluid was shuttled through the regenerator. In localized areas, the 41 mu m (1600 mu in.) diam type 304 stainless steel wire screening had been torn and pieces were missing. Scanning electron microscope revealed that the fracture had occurred at wire crossover locations by a fatigue mechanism. The problem was solved by sintering the individual screens into a single unit.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.9781627081801
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006548
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Aircraft Structural Integrity Program ASME American Society of Mechanical En- gineers ASTM American Society for the Testing of Materials AWS American Welding Society bcc body-centered cubic B Burgers vector BS British Standard BSE backscattered electrons BSI British Standards Institution CAD computer-aided...
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.chem.c9001718
EISBN: 978-1-62708-220-4
...) from a body-centered cubic crystal structure (β phase) stable at high temperatures to a heaxagonal close-packed crystal structure (α phase) stable at low temperatures. This transformation generally results in a Widmanstätten structure of α-zirconium. The more rapid the cooling rate, the finer...
Abstract
Post-service destructive evaluation was performed on two commercially pure zirconium pump impellers. One impeller failed after short service in an aqueous hydrochloric acid environment. Its exposed surfaces are bright and shiny, covered with pockmarks, and peppered with pitting. Uniform corrosion is evident and two deep linear defects are present on impeller blade tips. In contrast, the undamaged impeller surfaces are covered with a dark oxide film. This and many other impellers in seemingly identical service conditions survive long lives with little or no apparent damage. No material or manufacturing defects were found to explain the different service performance of the two impellers. Microstructure, microhardness and material chemistry are consistent with the specified material. Examination reveals the damage mechanism to be corrosion-enhanced cavitation erosion, the most severe form of erosion corrosion. Cavitation damage to the protective oxide film caused the zirconium to lose its normally outstanding corrosion resistance. The root cause of the impeller failure is most likely the introduction of excessive air into the pump due to low liquid level, a bad seal or inadequate head. Corrosion pitting, crevice corrosion, and solidification cracks (casting defect) also contributed to the failure.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006786
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
.... Fig. 1 Embrittlement and nonembrittlement couples in solid/liquid systems. hcp, hexagonal close-packed; bcc, body-centered cubic; fcc, face-centered cubic. Source: Ref 5 Metals that have been shown to cause liquid-metal-induced embrittlement, solid-metal-induced embrittlement, or both...
Abstract
Metal-induced embrittlement is a phenomenon in which the ductility or the fracture stress of a solid metal is reduced by surface contact with another metal in either the liquid or solid form. This article summarizes some of the characteristics of liquid-metal- and solid-metal-induced embrittlement. This phenomenon shares many of these characteristics with other modes of environmentally induced cracking, such as hydrogen embrittlement and stress-corrosion cracking. The discussion covers the occurrence, failure analysis, and service failures of the embrittlement. The article also briefly reviews some commercial alloy systems in which liquid-metal-induced embrittlement or solid-metal-induced embrittlement has been documented and describes some examples of cracking due to these phenomena, either in manufacturing or in service.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003543
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... atoms typically result in a crystalline structure, which in most engineering metals are face-centered cubic (fcc), body centered cubic (bcc), or hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structures. The formation of crystal lattices occurs as a result of bonding between atoms. Strong bonding forces between atoms...
Abstract
Overload failures refer to the ductile or brittle fracture of a material when stresses exceed the load-bearing capacity of a material. This article reviews some mechanistic aspects of ductile and brittle crack propagation, including a discussion on mixed-mode cracking, which may also occur when an overload failure is caused by a combination of ductile and brittle cracking mechanisms. It describes the general aspects of fracture modes and mechanisms. The article discusses some of the material, mechanical, and environmental factors that may be involved in determining the root cause of an overload failure. It also presents examples of thermally and environmentally induced embrittlement effects that can alter the overload fracture behavior of metals.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001843
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... diffraction (XRD) was used. Since tin pest is the transformation of tin from a body centered tetragonal structure (beta tin) to a cubic structure (alpha tin), use of XRD on the affected areas provided conclusive evidence of the phase constituents present. Figure 6 shows the XRD spectra obtained...
Abstract
The operator of an electric transit system purchased a large number of tin-plated copper connectors, putting some in service and others in reserve. Later, when some of the reserve connectors were inspected, the metal surfaces were covered with spots consisting of an ash-like powder and the plating material had separated from the substrate in many areas. Several connectors, including some that had been in service, were examined to determine what caused the change. The order stated that the connectors were to be coated with a layer of tin-bismuth (2% Bi) to guard against tin pest, a type of degradation that occurs at low temperatures. Based on the results of the investigation, which included SEM/EDS analysis, inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy, and x-ray diffraction, the metal surfaces contained less than 0.1% Bi and thus were not adequately protected against tin pest, which was confirmed as the failure mechanism in the investigation.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006778
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... are rotated with respect to each other (polycrystalline). In most metals, metallic bonds between atoms typically result in a crystalline structure, which in most engineering metals are face-centered cubic (fcc), body-centered cubic (bcc), or hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structures. The formation...
Abstract
This article aims to identify and illustrate the types of overload failures, which are categorized as failures due to insufficient material strength and underdesign, failures due to stress concentration and material defects, and failures due to material alteration. It describes the general aspects of fracture modes and mechanisms. The article briefly reviews some mechanistic aspects of ductile and brittle crack propagation, including discussion on mixed-mode cracking. Factors associated with overload failures are discussed, and, where appropriate, preventive steps for reducing the likelihood of overload fractures are included. The article focuses primarily on the contribution of embrittlement to overload failure. The embrittling phenomena are described and differentiated by their causes, effects, and remedial methods, so that failure characteristics can be directly compared during practical failure investigation. The article describes the effects of mechanical loading on a part in service and provides information on laboratory fracture examination.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001609
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... form both at grain boundaries and within the grains. Sensitization develops as Cr is depleted from the areas surrounding the precipitates. 1 Toughness is also reduced by carbide precipitation. Between 370 and 480 °C (700 and 900 °F), precipitation of alpha prime, a body-centered cubic (bcc), Cr-rich...
Abstract
Alloy 430 stainless steel tube-to-header welds failed in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) within one year of commissioning. The HRSG was in a combined cycle, gas-fired, combustion turbine electric power plant. Alloy 430, a 17% Cr ferritic stainless steel, was selected because of its resistance to chloride and sulfuric acid dewpoint corrosion under conditions potentially present in the HRSG low-pressure feedwater economizer. Intergranular corrosion and cracking were found in the weld metal and heat-affected zones. The hardness in these regions was up to 35 HRC, and the weld had received a postweld heat treatment (PWHT). Metallographic examination revealed that the corroded areas contained undertempered martensite. Fully tempered weld areas with a hardness of 93 HRB were not attacked. No evidence of corrosion fatigue was found. Uneven temperature control during PWHT was the most likely cause of failure.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001685
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
..., the material is quenched from a body centered cubic crystallographic structure with titanium in solution to an orthorhombic structure consisting of α′-martensite that is supersaturated with titanium. Fine precipitates identified as U 2 Ti (δ phase) are evenly dispersed throughout the matrix [ 1 ]. However...
Abstract
The U-0.8wt%Ti alloy is often used in weapon applications where high strength and fairly good ductility are necessary. Components are immersion quenched in water from the gamma phase to produce a martensitic structure that is amenable to aging. Undesirable conditions occur when a component occasionally cracks during the quenching process, and when tensile specimens fail prematurely during mechanical testing. These two failures prompted an investigative analysis and a series of studies to determine the causes of the cracking and erratic behavior observed in this alloy. Quench-related failures whereby components that cracked either during or immediately after the heat treatment/quenching operation were sectioned for metallographic examination of the microstructure to examine the degree of phase transformation. Examination of premature tensile specimen failures by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray imaging of fracture surfaces revealed pockets of inclusions at the crack origins. In addition, tests were conducted to evaluate the detrimental effects of internal hydrogen on ductility and crack initiation in this alloy.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006774
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... markings that the dark region was the location of some material imperfection that initiated fracture. Typically, it is common for fracture initiation to occur within a relatively small region, where the center of the radial-fan markings provides a strong indication of the crack initiation region...
Abstract
Engineering component and structure failures manifest through many mechanisms but are most often associated with fracture in one or more forms. This article introduces the subject of fractography and aspects of how it is used in failure analysis. The basic types of fracture processes (ductile, brittle, fatigue, and creep) are described briefly, principally in terms of fracture appearances. A description of the surface, structure, and behavior of each fracture process is also included. The article provides a framework from which a prospective analyst can begin to study the fracture of a component of interest in a failure investigation. Details on the mechanisms of deformation, brittle transgranular fracture, intergranular fracture, fatigue fracture, and environmentally affected fracture are also provided.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001803
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
...Type of Implant Material, Chemical Composition, Survival Time in Body, and Reasons for Failure Table 1 Type of Implant Material, Chemical Composition, Survival Time in Body, and Reasons for Failure Type of Implant Composition Survival Time, yr Failure Reason Total hip prosthesis...
Abstract
Metallurgical SEM analysis provides many insights into the failure of biomedical materials and devices. The results of several such investigations are reported here, including findings and conclusions from the examination a total hip prosthesis, stainless steel and titanium compression plates, and hollow spinal rods. Some of the failure mechanisms that were identified include corrosive attack, corrosion plus erosion-corrosion, inclusions and stress gaps, production impurities, design flaws, and manufacturing defects. Failure prevention and mitigation strategies are also discussed.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003530
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... or determine σ 1 , σ 2 , σ 3 , and maximum shear stresses for a general 3D system of stresses. However, once σ 1 , σ 2 , and σ 3 are known from the solution of the cubic equation ( Eq 21 ), it is possible to draw three circles ( Fig. 6 ) having centers, C , at (Eq 24) C 1 = σ 1 + σ 2 2...
Abstract
This article describes the underlying fundamentals, applications, the relevance and necessity of performing proper stress analysis in conducting a failure analysis. It presents an introduction to the stress analysis of bodies containing crack-like imperfections and the topic of fracture mechanics. The fracture mechanics approach is an important part of stress analysis at the tips of sharp cracks or discontinuities. The article reviews fracture mechanics concepts, including linear elastic fracture mechanics, elastic-plastic fracture mechanics, and subcritical fracture mechanics. It also provides information on the applications of fracture mechanics in failure analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006767
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... from the solution of the cubic equation ( Eq 21 ), it is possible to draw three circles ( Fig. 6 ) having centers, C , at: (Eq 24) C 1 = σ 1 + σ 2 2 ; C 2 = σ 2 + σ 3 2 ; C 3 = σ 1 + σ 3 2 and radii: (Eq 25) R 1...
Abstract
This article describes concepts and tools that can be used by the failure analyst to understand and address deformation, cracking, or fracture after a stress-related failure has occurred. Issues related to the determination and use of stress are detailed. Stress is defined, and a procedure to deal with stress by determining maximum values through stress transformation is described. The article provides the stress analysis equations of typical component geometries and discusses some of the implications of the stress analysis relative to failure in components. It focuses on linear elastic fracture mechanics analysis, with some mention of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics analysis. The article describes the probabilistic aspects of fatigue and fracture. Information on crack-growth simulation of the material is also provided.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006797
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... cubic (fcc) crystal structure, and one for a body-centered cubic (bcc) material that exhibits a ductile-to-brittle transition. Fig. 5 Diagram of the temperature dependence of elastic, plastic, and fracture behavior of polycrystalline materials that do not exhibit a solid-state transformation. bcc...
Abstract
Distortion often is observed in the analysis of other types of failures, and consideration of the distortion can be an important part of the analysis. This article first considers that true distortion occurs when it was unexpected and in which the distortion is associated with a functional failure. Then, a more general consideration of distortion in failure analysis is introduced. Several common aspects of failure by distortion are discussed and suitable examples of distortion failures are presented for illustration. The article provides information on methods to compute load limits, errors in the specification of the material, and faulty process and their corrective measures to meet specifications. It discusses the general process of material failure analysis and special types of distortion and deformation failure.