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aluminum-lithium alloys
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Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 8 Fretting maps for an aluminum-lithium alloy. (a) Identification of the fretting regimes. (b) Corresponding material response. Adapted from Ref 22
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006777
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... Embrittlement of copper by antimony Segregation of alloying elements, lithium and magnesium in aluminum-lithium alloys ( Ref 10 ) Embrittlement of copper alloys by bismuth (fire-cracking) ( Ref 11 ) Grain-boundary strengthening is characteristic of IG fractures caused by embrittlement. Intergranular...
Abstract
This article briefly reviews the factors that influence the occurrence of intergranular (IG) fractures. Because the appearance of IG fractures is often very similar, the principal focus is placed on the various metallurgical or environmental factors that cause grain boundaries to become the preferred path of crack growth. The article describes in more detail some typical mechanisms that cause IG fracture. It discusses the causes and effects of IG brittle cracking, dimpled IG fracture, IG fatigue, hydrogen embrittlement, and IG stress-corrosion cracking. The article presents a case history on IG fracture of steam generator tubes, where a lowering of the operating temperature was proposed to reduce failures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006789
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... and fretting fatigue failures, the fretting-map approach is very useful and informative ( Ref 21 ). As an example, Fig. 8 shows the fretting maps for an aluminum-lithium alloy (obtained with a sphere-flat contact) ( Ref 22 ) in terms of normal force versus displacement. In Fig. 8(a) , the fretting regimes...
Abstract
This article considers the main characteristics of wear mechanisms and how they can be identified. Some identification examples are reported, with the warning that this task can be difficult because of the presence of disturbing factors such as contaminants or possible additional damage of the worn products after the tribological process. Then, the article describes some examples of wear processes, considering possible transitions and/or interactions of the mechanism of fretting wear, rolling-sliding wear, abrasive wear, and solid-particle erosion wear. The role of tribological parameters on the material response is presented using the wear map concept, which is very useful and informative in several respects. The article concludes with guidelines for the selection of suitable surface treatments to avoid wear failures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006770
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... the surface of the sample. Fig. 9 Three different energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS) spectra obtained from the indicated regions of a copper sample surrounded by aluminum foil. Note the annotated peak labels. In cases where the sample surface is rough and cannot be disturbed, yet chemical...
Abstract
X-ray spectroscopy is generally accepted as the most useful ancillary technique that can be added to any scanning electron microscope (SEM), even to the point of being considered a necessity by most operators. While “stand-alone” x-ray detection systems are used less frequently in failure analysis than the more exact instrumentation employed in SEMs, the technology is advancing and is worthy of note due to its capability for nondestructive analysis and application in the field. This article begins with information on the basis of the x-ray signal. This is followed by information on the operating principles and applications of detectors for x-ray spectroscopy, namely energy-dispersive spectrometers, wavelength-dispersive spectrometers, and handheld x-ray fluorescence systems. The processes involved in x-ray analysis in the SEM and handheld x-ray fluorescence analysis are then covered. The article ends with a discussion on the applications of x-ray spectroscopy in failure analysis.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006759
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... with some type of mechanical testing to determine adequate heat treatment of a part. For carbon and alloy steels, bulk chemical analysis is often used in conjunction with a bulk hardness test to determine the tensile strength of the material ( Ref 1 ). For aluminum alloys, bulk chemistry in conjunction...
Abstract
Chemical analysis is a critical part of any failure investigation. With the right planning and proper analytical equipment, a myriad of information can be obtained from a sample. This article presents a high-level introduction to techniques often used for chemical analysis during failure analysis. It describes the general considerations for bulk and microscale chemical analysis in failure analysis, the most effective techniques to use for organic or inorganic materials, and examples of using these techniques. The article discusses the processes involved in the chemical analysis of nonmetallics. Advances in chemical analysis methods for failure analysis are also covered.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.usage.c9001599
EISBN: 978-1-62708-236-5
... that the deposits consisted of calcium aluminum silicate, lithium aluminum silicate, and trevorite. Evaluation of the molybdenum electrode using energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy revealed that nickel and antimony were present on the outer surface ( Fig. 7 ) and on the grain boundaries ( Fig. 8...
Abstract
Failure of a pilot scale test melter resulted from severe overheating of an Inconel 690 (690) jacketed molybdenum electrode. Extreme temperatures were required to melt the glass during this campaign because the feed material contained a very high waste loading. Metallurgical evaluation revealed the presence of an alloy containing nickel and molybdenum in several ingots found on the bottom of the melter and on a drip which had solidified on the electrode sheath. This indicates that a major portion of the electrode assembly was exposed to a temperature of at least 1317 deg C, the nickel/molybdenum eutectic temperature. Small regions on the end of the 690 sheath showed evidence of melting, indicating that this localized region exceeded 1345 deg C, the melting point of 690. In addition to nickel, antimony was found on the grain boundaries of the molybdenum electrode. This also contributed to the failure of the electrode. The source of the antimony was not identified but is believed to have originated from the feed material. Metallurgical evaluation also revealed that nickel had attacked the grain boundaries of the molybdenum/tungsten drain valve. This component did not fail in service; however, intergranular attack led to degradation of the mechanical properties, resulting in the fracture of the drain valve tip during disassembly. Antimony was not observed on this component.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001083
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... on the base plate surface of impeller 1 were analyzed in situ using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), which can normally detect elements of atomic number 13 (aluminum) and above at concentrations as low as 0.3 to 0.5 wt%, whereas fluorine, sodium, and magnesium are detectable at somewhat higher...
Abstract
Copper alloy (C83600) impellers from two different feed pumps that supplied water to a 2-year-old boiler failed repeatedly. Examination by various methods indicated that the failures were caused by sulfide attack that concentrated in shrinkage voids in the castings. Two alternatives to prevent future failures were recommended: changing the impeller composition to a cast stainless steel, or implementing stricter nondestructive evaluation requirements for copper alloy castings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006785
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... and industries that have experienced SCC failures include (this list is not exhaustive): Aerospace: Aluminum alloys in structural aircraft components such as landing gear and wing components, stainless steel tubing used as part of the hydraulic or fuel systems, high-strength low-alloy steel...
Abstract
Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of corrosion and produces wastage in that the stress-corrosion cracks penetrate the cross-sectional thickness of a component over time and deteriorate its mechanical strength. Although there are factors common among the different forms of environmentally induced cracking, this article deals only with SCC of metallic components. It begins by presenting terminology and background of SCC. Then, the general characteristics of SCC and the development of conditions for SCC as well as the stages of SCC are covered. The article provides a brief overview of proposed SCC propagation mechanisms. It discusses the processes involved in diagnosing SCC and the prevention and mitigation of SCC. Several engineering alloys are discussed with respect to their susceptibility to SCC. This includes a description of some of the environmental and metallurgical conditions commonly associated with the development of SCC, although not all, and numerous case studies.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003553
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... analysis, metallographic analysis, and simulated-service tests. It provides case studies for the analysis of SCC service failures and their occurrence in steels, stainless steels, and commercial alloys of aluminum, copper, magnesium, and titanium. aluminum alloys austenitic stainless steel carbon...
Abstract
This article commences with a discussion on the characteristics of stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) and describes crack initiation and propagation during SCC. It reviews the various mechanisms of SCC and addresses electrochemical and stress-sorption theories. The article explains the SCC, which occurs due to welding, metalworking process, and stress concentration, including options for investigation and corrective measures. It describes the sources of stresses in service and the effect of composition and metal structure on the susceptibility of SCC. The article provides information on specific ions and substances, service environments, and preservice environments responsible for SCC. It details the analysis of SCC failures, which include on-site examination, sampling, observation of fracture surface characteristics, macroscopic examination, microscopic examination, chemical analysis, metallographic analysis, and simulated-service tests. It provides case studies for the analysis of SCC service failures and their occurrence in steels, stainless steels, and commercial alloys of aluminum, copper, magnesium, and titanium.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001365
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... examination based on the characteristic energies of x-rays produced by the electron beam. EDS can normally detect elements with atomic numbers of 13 (aluminum) and above at concentrations as low as 0.3 to 0.5 wt%; fluorine, sodium, and magnesium are detectable at somewhat higher concentrations. As performed...
Abstract
An investigation was conducted to determine the cause of numerous cracks and other defects on the surface of a cast ASTM A743 grade CA-15 stainless steel main boiler feed pump impeller. The surface was examined using a stereomicroscope, and macrofractography was conducted on several cross sections removed from the impeller body. Areas that appeared to have the most severe surface damage were sectioned, fractured open, and examined using SEM. The chemistry of the impeller and an apparent repair weld were also analyzed. The examination indicated that the cracks were shrinkage voids from the original casting process. Surface repair welds had been used to fill in or cover over larger shrinkage cavities. It was recommended that more stringent visual and nondestructive examination criteria be established for the castings.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003536
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... of a metal-matrix composite (MMC) containing unidirectionally aligned alumina fibers in the matrix of an aluminum alloy. Figures 2(b) and 2(c) show a fracture profile from the tensile fracture surface of a low-alloy steel specimen. These fracture surfaces were electroplated with copper. As illustrated...
Abstract
The quantitative characterization of fracture surface geometry, that is, quantitative fractography, can provide useful information regarding the microstructural features and failure mechanisms that govern material fracture. This article is devoted to the fractographic techniques that are based on fracture profilometry. This is followed by a section describing the methods based on scanning electron microscope fractography. The article also addresses procedures for three-dimensional fracture surface reconstruction. In each case, sufficient methodological details, governing equations, and practical examples are provided.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003540
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... magnifications of 500×. Courtesy of Mohan Chaudhari, Columbus Metallurgical Services Fig. 2 SEM images of intergranular fracture with different grain morphologies. (a) Rock candy appearance from atmospheric stress-corrosion cracking of a high-strength aluminum alloy with equiaxed grains. 130×. (b...
Abstract
This article briefly reviews the various metallurgical or environmental factors that cause a weakening of the grain boundaries and, in turn, influence the occurrence of intergranular (IG) fractures. It discusses the mechanisms of IG fractures, including the dimpled IG fracture, the IG brittle fracture, and the IG fatigue fracture. The article describes some typical embrittlement mechanisms that cause the IG fracture of steels.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.rail.c9001719
EISBN: 978-1-62708-231-0
... that has solidified after failure is often found in the crack. The best determinate of LME is the identification phase of metal that exists in the crack after failure. Low carbon steels are known to exhibit LME susceptibility to brass, aluminum bronze, copper, zinc, lead-tin solder, indium, and lithium...
Abstract
Metallography is an important component of failure analysis. In the case of a liquid metal embrittlement (LME) failure it is usually conclusive if a third phase constituent can be formed inside of the cracks after failure. In the case where it is necessary to characterize the third phase material, one can use various x-ray spectrographic techniques in conjunction with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). This study describes those metallographic and SEM analysis techniques for determining the mode of failure for a locomotive traction motor by LME.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003548
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... blade spar shank was constructed of 2014-T652 aluminum alloy. The spar was hollow with the cavity filled with a lead wool ballast material and sealed with a thermoset material. One blade separated in flight, but fortunately a successful emergency landing was made. The outboard section that had separated...
Abstract
This article addresses the forms of corrosion that contribute directly to the failure of metal parts or that render them susceptible to failure by some other mechanism. It describes the mechanisms of corrosive attack for specific forms of corrosion such as galvanic corrosion, uniform corrosion, pitting and crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, and velocity-affected corrosion. The article contains a table that lists combinations of alloys and environments subjected to selective leaching and the elements removed by leaching.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006783
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... blade spar shank was constructed of 2014-T652 aluminum alloy. The spar was hollow, with the cavity filled with a lead wool ballast material and sealed with a thermoset material. One blade separated in flight, but fortunately a successful emergency landing was made. The outboard section that had...
Abstract
Corrosion is the electrochemical reaction of a material and its environment. This article addresses those forms of corrosion that contribute directly to the failure of metal parts or that render them susceptible to failure by some other mechanism. Various forms of corrosion covered are galvanic corrosion, uniform corrosion, pitting, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, selective leaching, and velocity-affected corrosion. In particular, mechanisms of corrosive attack for specific forms of corrosion, as well as evaluation and factors contributing to these forms, are described. These reviews of corrosion forms and mechanisms are intended to assist the reader in developing an understanding of the underlying principles of corrosion; acquiring such an understanding is the first step in recognizing and analyzing corrosion-related failures and in formulating preventive measures.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003555
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... steels are susceptible to various molten metals or alloys, such as brass, aluminum, bronze, copper, zinc, lead-tin solders, indium, and lithium, at temperatures from 260 to 815 °C (500 to 1500 °F). Plain carbon steels are not satisfactory for long-term use with molten aluminum. Stainless steels...
Abstract
High temperature corrosion may occur in numerous environments and is affected by factors such as temperature, alloy or protective coating composition, time, and gas composition. This article explains a number of potential degradation processes, namely, oxidation, carburization and metal dusting, sulfidation, hot corrosion, chloridation, hydrogen interactions, molten metals, molten salts, and aging reactions including sensitization, stress-corrosion cracking, and corrosion fatigue. It concludes with a discussion on various protective coatings, such as aluminide coatings, overlay coatings, thermal barrier coatings, and ceramic coatings.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006775
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... by planar slip ( Ref 36 ). There has also been a report of void nucleation without particle debonding in an aluminum-lithium alloy ( Ref 31 ). In this alloy, a variation in particle size was present, ranging from very small iron- and silicon-rich particles (the inclusions) to larger particles present...
Abstract
This article focuses on characterizing the fracture-surface appearance at the microscale and contains some discussion on both crack nucleation and propagation mechanisms that cause the fracture appearance. It begins with a discussion on microscale models and mechanisms for deformation and fracture. Next, the mechanisms of void nucleation and void coalescence are briefly described. Macroscale and microscale appearances of ductile and brittle fracture are then discussed for various specimen geometries (smooth cylindrical and prismatic) and loading conditions (e.g., tension compression, bending, torsion). Finally, the factors influencing the appearance of a fracture surface and various imperfections or stress raisers are described, followed by a root-cause failure analysis case history to illustrate some of these fractography concepts.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003538
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... of void nucleation without particle debonding in an aluminum-lithium alloy ( Ref 31 ). In this alloy, a variation in particle size was present, ranging from very small iron- and silicon-rich particles (the inclusions) to larger particles present because of solute additions for age-hardening response...
Abstract
This article provides a description of the microscale models and mechanisms for deformation and fracture. Macroscale and microscale appearances of ductile and brittle fracture are discussed for various specimen geometries and loading conditions. The article reviews the general geometric factors and materials aspects that influence the stress-strain behavior and fracture of ductile metals. It highlights fractures arising from manufacturing imperfections and stress raisers. The article presents a root cause failure analysis case history to illustrate some of the fractography concepts.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001098
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... of materials under SEM examination based on the characteristic energies of X-rays produced by interaction with an electron beam. EDS can normally detect elements of atomic number 13 (aluminum) and above at concentrations as low as 0.3 to 0.5 wt%, while fluorine, sodium, and magnesium are detectable at somewhat...
Abstract
Six ASTM A-574 steel cap screws from a hydraulic coupling failed after 3 months in service. The screws were replacements for smaller-diameter cap screws that had been installed during an outage. Six new cap screws were examined along with the failed screws. Eight fracture locations were identified—three at the head-to-shank fillet, four at the eighth thread root from the cap, and one at the sixth thread root from the cap. Fracture surfaces were examined using a stereomicroscope and SEM, and the fracture mode was shown to be transgranular. EDS on the fracture surfaces showed sulfur and chlorine in the surface deposits. The observations indicated that the screws had failed by fatigue. Insufficient preloading was considered to be the most likely cause of the fatigue cracking. It was recommended that the proper preload on the screws be verified and maintained.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006764
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
...-transmission two sides or reflection mode single side. Good sensitivity in acoustically clear material All metals and alloys, sintered carbides, glass and ceramics, rubber, structural plastics, concrete Electromagnetic testing Measures impedance of coil close to conductive material. Coil impedance changes...
Abstract
Nondestructive testing (NDT), also known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE), includes various techniques to characterize materials without damage. This article focuses on the typical NDE techniques that may be considered when conducting a failure investigation. The article begins with discussion about the concept of the probability of detection (POD), on which the statistical reliability of crack detection is based. The coverage includes the various methods of surface inspection, including visual-examination tools, scanning technology in dimensional metrology, and the common methods of detecting surface discontinuities by magnetic-particle inspection, liquid penetrant inspection, and eddy-current testing. The major NDE methods for internal (volumetric) inspection in failure analysis also are described.
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