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Residual stress
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Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003528
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article focuses primarily on what an analyst should know about applying X-ray diffraction (XRD) residual stress measurement techniques to failure analysis. Discussions are extended to the description of ways in which XRD can be applied to the characterization of residual stresses...
Abstract
This article focuses primarily on what an analyst should know about applying X-ray diffraction (XRD) residual stress measurement techniques to failure analysis. Discussions are extended to the description of ways in which XRD can be applied to the characterization of residual stresses in a component or assembly. The article describes the steps required to calibrate instrumentation and to validate stress measurement results. It presents a practical approach to sample selection and specimen preparation, measurement location selection, and measurement depth selection, as well as an outline on measurement validation. The article also provides information on stress-corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue. The importance of residual stress in fatigue is described with examples. The article explains the effects of heat treatment and manufacturing processes on residual stress. It concludes with a section on the XRD stress measurements in multiphase materials and composites and in locations of stress concentration.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001305
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
.... The crack was 4.8 mm ( 3 16 in.) wide at the tread. The opening decreased linearly to only 1 mm (0.05 in.) at the hub bore. This degree of taper indicated that high tangential residual stresses were present in the rim at the time of failure. Testing Procedure and Results Surface Examination...
Abstract
An ASTM A 504 carbon steel railway car wheel that was used on a train in a metropolitan railway system failed during service, causing derailment. The wheel was completely fractured from rim to hub. Macrofractography of the fracture surface showed road grime, indicating that the crack had existed for a considerable time prior to derailment and initiated in the flange. Failure propagated from the flange across the rim and down the plate to the bore of the hub. Two zones that exhibited definite signs of heating were observed. The fracture initiation site was typical of fatigue fracture. No defects were found that could have contributed to failure. The wheel conformed to the chemical, microstructural, and hardness requirements for class A wheels. Failure was attributed to repeated severe heating and cooling of the rim and flange due to brake locking or misapplication of the hand brake. It was recommended that the brake system on the car be examined and replaced if necessary.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006768
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... Definition of the reference axes and the direction of measurement in x-ray diffraction residual-stress analysis Fig. 3 ψ-splitting on steel using (a) elliptical fit and (b) linear fit for ψ > 0 and ψ < 0 Fig. 2 Common types of d -spacing versus sin 2 ψ plots. (a) Linear: exhibiting...
Abstract
X-ray diffraction (XRD) residual-stress analysis is an essential tool for failure analysis. This article focuses primarily on what the analyst should know about applying XRD residual-stress measurement techniques to failure analysis. Discussions are extended to the description of ways in which XRD can be applied to the characterization of residual stresses in a component or assembly and to the subsequent evaluation of corrective actions that alter the residual-stress state of a component for the purposes of preventing, minimizing, or eradicating the contribution of residual stress to premature failures. The article presents a practical approach to sample selection and specimen preparation, measurement location selection, and measurement depth selection; measurement validation is outlined as well. A number of case studies and examples are cited. The article also briefly summarizes the theory of XRD analysis and describes advances in equipment capability.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.bldgs.c0047512
EISBN: 978-1-62708-219-8
...) to 7 deg C (45 deg F) that night. The column was shop fabricated in 12 m (40 ft) long sections of 19 mm (3/4 in.) thick steel plate of ASTM A36 steel. Crack initiation was caused by high residual stress during girth welding, and the presence of notches formed by the termination of the incomplete welds...
Abstract
During construction of a revolving sky-tower observatory, a 2.4 m (8 ft) diam cylindrical column developed serious circumferential cracks overnight at the 14 m (46 ft) level where two 12 m (40 ft) sections were joined by a girth weld. The temperatures ranged from 12 deg C (53 deg F) to 7 deg C (45 deg F) that night. The column was shop fabricated in 12 m (40 ft) long sections of 19 mm (3/4 in.) thick steel plate of ASTM A36 steel. Crack initiation was caused by high residual stress during girth welding, and the presence of notches formed by the termination of the incomplete welds. Continuation of the cracks was attributed to the brittle condition of the steel when cooled by the night air. A steel with a much lower ductile-to-brittle transition temperature is essential for this type of structure. Other necessary steps include better control of the girth-welding, choice of a more favorable electrode to avoid porosity, careful termination of all welds to avoid formation of notches, and completion of all welds before other sections of the column are erected.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001119
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... initiated from the spring inside coil surface. Examination of the fracture surface using scanning electron microscopy showed no evidence of fatigue. Final fracture occurred in torsion. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed high inner-diameter residual stresses, indicating inadequate stress relief from spring...
Abstract
To samples of helical compression springs were returned to the manufacturer after failing in service well short of the component design life. Spring design specifications required conformance to SAE J157, “Oil Tempered Chromium Silicon Alloy Steel Wire and Springs.” Each spring was installed in a separate heavy truck engine in an application in which spring failure can cause total engine destruction. The springs were composed of chromium-silicon steel, with a hardness ranging from 50 to 54 HRC. Chemical composition and hardness were substantially within specification. Failure initiated from the spring inside coil surface. Examination of the fracture surface using scanning electron microscopy showed no evidence of fatigue. Final fracture occurred in torsion. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed high inner-diameter residual stresses, indicating inadequate stress relief from spring winding. It was concluded that failure initiation was caused by residual stress-driven stress-corrosion cracking, and it was recommended that the vendor provide more effective stress relief.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c0091528
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... (1000 psi). Samples that were welded with the high heat input procedure, which promotes carbide precipitation and residual stress, cracked after 168 h of exposure, whereas samples that were welded with the low heat input procedure remained crack free. These results were considered significant because...
Abstract
A 150 mm (6 in.) schedule 80S type 304 stainless steel pipe (11 mm, or 0.432 in., wall thickness), which had served as an equalizer line in the primary loop of a pressurized-water reactor, was found to contain several circumferential cracks 50 to 100 mm (2 to 4 in.) long. Two of these cracks, which had penetrated the pipe wall, were responsible for leaks detected in a hydrostatic test performed during a general inspection after seven years of service. Investigation (visual inspection, visual and ultrasonic weld examination, water analysis, and chemical analysis) supported the conclusion that the failure was caused by SCC due to stress, sensitization, and environment. Recommendations included replacing all pipe sections and installing them using low-heat-input, multiple-pass welding procedures.
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in Use of XRD to Evaluate Cracks in Steel Cargo Tiedown Sockets
> ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories: Offshore, Shipbuilding, and Marine Equipment
Published: 01 June 2019
Fig. 2 Typical residual-stress profile as a function of distance from the maximum stress concentration in the radius of a tiedown socket
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in Failure Analysis of Gas Turbine Engine Fuel Nozzle Heat Shields
> ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories: Improper Maintenance, Repair, and Operating Conditions
Published: 01 June 2019
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in Failure Analysis of a Temporary Power Line Anchor
> Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis
Published: 01 December 2019
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in Brittle Fracture Assessment and Failure Assessment Diagrams
> Analysis and Prevention of Component and Equipment Failures
Published: 30 August 2021
Fig. 5 Failure assessment diagram (FAD) results. (a) Without weld residual stress. (b) With weld residual stress
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in Analysis Methods for Probabilistic Life Assessment
> Analysis and Prevention of Component and Equipment Failures
Published: 30 August 2021
Fig. 15 Distribution of the sampled weld residual-stress (WRS) profiles at the inner diameter (ID) from PROMETHEUS and PRO-LOCA
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in Analysis Methods for Probabilistic Life Assessment
> Analysis and Prevention of Component and Equipment Failures
Published: 30 August 2021
Fig. 16 Statistics from the sampled weld residual-stress (WRS) profiles from PROMETHEUS with Weibull distribution for initiation and PRO-LOCA
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in X-Ray Diffraction Residual-Stress Measurement in Failure Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 10 Surface residual-stress map of resistance-welded, heat-treated, and ground steel saw blade. Source: Ref 39
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in X-Ray Diffraction Residual-Stress Measurement in Failure Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
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in X-Ray Diffraction Residual-Stress Measurement in Failure Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 12 Effect of tensile residual stress (RS) on fracture loads as a function of test temperature. Source: Ref 43
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in X-Ray Diffraction Residual-Stress Measurement in Failure Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 13 Crack-tip opening of a shot-peened and residual-stress-free Ti-6Al-4V specimen. Source: Ref 44
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in X-Ray Diffraction Residual-Stress Measurement in Failure Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 14 X-ray diffraction residual-stress map showing the introduction of compressive surface residual stresses in the parent material and the reduction, but not elimination, of tensile residual stresses in the weld metal on the unmasked side from shot peening a nickel alloy weldment. Source
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in X-Ray Diffraction Residual-Stress Measurement in Failure Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 23 Subsurface residual-stress distribution after grinding hardened steel (stress measured in the direction of grinding). Source: Ref 3
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in X-Ray Diffraction Residual-Stress Measurement in Failure Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
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in X-Ray Diffraction Residual-Stress Measurement in Failure Analysis
> Failure Analysis and Prevention
Published: 15 January 2021
Fig. 25 Comparison of residual stress on the tooth pitch diameter found in two different types of hardened steel gears in new and used conditions using x-ray diffraction. (a) Pinion gears. (b) Sun gears
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