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Book Chapter
Corrosion Fatigue Failure of Stainless Steel Load Cells in a Milk Storage Tank
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001386
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... fracture that was preceded by a small fatigue region. Pitting corrosion was evident at the fracture origin. The areas around the load cells had been subjected to regular washdowns using high-pressure hot water, and the pitting was attributed to crevice corrosion between the load cell and the holddown bolts...
Abstract
Two type 420 martensitic stainless steel load cell bodies, which had been installed under two of the four legs of a milk storage tank failed in service. The failure occurred near a change in section and involved fracture of the entire cross section. Examination showed a brittle fracture that was preceded by a small fatigue region. Pitting corrosion was evident at the fracture origin. The areas around the load cells had been subjected to regular washdowns using high-pressure hot water, and the pitting was attributed to crevice corrosion between the load cell and the holddown bolts. Prevention of such corrosion by the use of a flexible sealant to eliminate the crevice was recommended.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of a Radio-Activated Accelerator Component
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001632
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... temperature cycles calculated to be from 400 to 30 deg C (752 to 86 deg F). The window was activated to >200 Sv/h. It was determined through analysis using remote handling techniques and hot cells that the crack initiated near a spot weld used to affix thermocouples to the window surface. In addition...
Abstract
A double-walled, hemispherical metal beam exit window made of alloy 718 developed a crack during service, leading to coolant leakage. The window had been exposed to radiation damage from 800 MeV protons and a cyclic stress from 600 MPa tensile to near zero induced by numerous temperature cycles calculated to be from 400 to 30 deg C (752 to 86 deg F). The window was activated to >200 Sv/h. It was determined through analysis using remote handling techniques and hot cells that the crack initiated near a spot weld used to affix thermocouples to the window surface. In addition to analysis of the crack, some of the irradiated material from the window was used to measure mechanical properties. Hot cell techniques for preparation of samples and testing were developed to determine true operating conditions of radiation, strain, and temperature.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis: Sulfide Stress Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of A216-WCC Wellhead Flow Control Valve Body
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001820
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... that the sulfur content is in the level of 24,000 ppm. Fluid circulating through the wellhead flow control valve is sour gas with wet H 2 S. The upstream pressure is 1100 psi and the maximum working temperature 90 °C. These bodies (three valve bodies installed in different sour gas wells) have been operating...
Abstract
A group of control valves that regulate production in a field of sour gas wellheads performed satisfactorily for three years before pits and cracks were detected during an inspection. One of the valves was examined using chemical and microstructural analysis to determine the cause of failure and provide preventive measures. The valve body was made of A216-WCC cast carbon steel. Its inner surface was covered with cracks stemming from surface pits. Investigators concluded that the failure was caused by a combination of hydrogen-induced corrosion cracking and sulfide stress-corrosion cracking. Based on test data and cost, A217-WC9 cast Cr–Mo steel would be a better alloy for the application.
Book Chapter
Friction and Wear Testing
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006911
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... of polymers and the tribometers and instrumentation used to measure the tribological properties of polymers. The article discusses the processes involved in calculating the wear rate of polymers and the methods of characterization of the sliding interface. It provides information on the pressure and velocity...
Abstract
Tribology is the study of contacting materials in relative motion and more specifically the study of friction, wear, and lubrication. This article discusses the classification and the mechanisms of friction, wear, and lubrication of polymers. It describes the tribological applications of polymers and the tribometers and instrumentation used to measure the tribological properties of polymers. The article discusses the processes involved in calculating the wear rate of polymers and the methods of characterization of the sliding interface. It provides information on the pressure and velocity limit of polymer composites and polymer testing best practices.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003556
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... of temperature, pressure, salinity, and pH ( Ref 1 ). In the 1950s, pioneering work by Zobell isolated sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) that grew at 104 °C (219 °F) and pressures of 1000 bar from oil-bearing geological formations deep underground ( Ref 15 ). Microbial communities exist in environments as diverse...
Abstract
This article focuses on the mechanisms of microbially induced or influenced corrosion (MIC) of metallic materials as an introduction to the recognition, management, and prevention of microbiological corrosion failures in piping, tanks, heat exchangers, and cooling towers. It discusses the degradation of various protective systems, such as corrosion inhibitors and lubricants. The article describes the failure analysis of steel, iron, copper, aluminum, and their alloys. It also discusses the probes available to monitor conditions relevant to MIC in industrial systems and the sampling and analysis of conditions usually achieved by the installation of removable coupons in the target system. The article also explains the prevention and control strategies of MIC in industrial systems.
Book Chapter
Pipeline Failure Results from Lightning Strike: Act of Mother Nature?
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001823
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
..., approximately 22 cm (8.7 in.) OD x 0.5 cm (0.2 in.) wall thickness, which was electric resistance welded along the longitudinal seam. The pressure at the time and location of the failure was 2760 kPa, which corresponds to 20% of the specified minimum yield strength. The cause of failure (based on visual...
Abstract
A section of pipe in a hydrocarbon pipeline was found to be leaking. The pipeline was installed several decades earlier and was protected by an external coating of extruded polyethylene and a cathodic protection system. The failed pipe section was made from API 5L X46 line pipe steel, approximately 22 cm (8.7 in.) OD x 0.5 cm (0.2 in.) wall thickness, which was electric resistance welded along the longitudinal seam. The pressure at the time and location of the failure was 2760 kPa, which corresponds to 20% of the specified minimum yield strength. The cause of failure (based on visual inspection, magnetic particle inspection, stereoscopic analysis, scanning electron microscopy, tensile and hardness testing, and chemical analysis) was attributed to damage resulting from a lightning strike.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of Welded Low-Carbon Steel Storage Tank
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.chem.c9001525
EISBN: 978-1-62708-220-4
.... The containers were then filled with the slightly alkaline solution, pressurized, and allowed to stand under ambient conditions. A small number, less than 1%, were returned because they began to leak in service. Inspection revealed general corrosion and pitting on the inner surfaces. However, other tanks...
Abstract
Welded steel storage vessels used to hold mildly alkaline solution were produced in exactly the same manner from deep-drawn aluminum-killed SAE 1006 low-carbon steel sheet. After the cylindrical shell was drawn, a top low-carbon steel closure was welded to the inside diameter. The containers were then filled with the slightly alkaline solution, pressurized, and allowed to stand under ambient conditions. A small number, less than 1%, were returned because they began to leak in service. Inspection revealed general corrosion and pitting on the inner surfaces. However, other tanks that experienced the same service conditions developed no corrosion. Corrosion was linked to forming defects that provided sites for localized corrosion, and to lack of steam drying after cleaning, which increased susceptibility to general corrosion.
Book Chapter
Leaks in Copper Tubing From Cooling Coils of a Large Air-Conditioning Unit
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001338
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... Abstract Copper tubes from the cooler assemblies of a large air-conditioning unit exhibited leakage upon installation of the unit. Sections from two leaking tubes and one nonleaking tube were subjected to pressure testing and microscopic examination. The cause of leaking was determined...
Abstract
Copper tubes from the cooler assemblies of a large air-conditioning unit exhibited leakage upon installation of the unit. Sections from two leaking tubes and one nonleaking tube were subjected to pressure testing and microscopic examination. The cause of leaking was determined to be pitting corrosion. Extensive pitting was found on the insides of all sections examined, with deep and numerous pits in leaking areas. Circumstantial evidence indicated that antifreeze solution left in the tubes from the manufacturing operation was the most likely cause of the pitting.
Book Chapter
Cavitation Damage to Diesel Engine Cylinder Liners
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001486
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... Abstract Cavitation damage of diesel engine cylinder liners is due to vibration of the cylinder wall, initiated by slap of the piston under the combined forces of inertia and firing pressure as it passes top dead center. The occurrence on the anti-thrust side may possibly result from bouncing...
Abstract
Cavitation damage of diesel engine cylinder liners is due to vibration of the cylinder wall, initiated by slap of the piston under the combined forces of inertia and firing pressure as it passes top dead center. The occurrence on the anti-thrust side may possibly result from bouncing of the piston. The exact mechanism of cavitation damage is not entirely clear. Two schools of thought have developed, one supporting an essentially erosive, and the other an essentially corrosive, mechanism. Measures to prevent, or reduce, cavitation damage should be considered firstly from the aspect of design, attention being given to methods of reducing the amplitude of the liner vibration. Attempts have been made to reduce the severity of attack by attention to the environment. Inhibitors, such as chromates, benzoate/nitrite mixtures, and emulsified oils, have been tried with varying success. Attempts have been made to reduce or prevent cavitation damage by the application of cathodic protection, and this has been found to be effective in certain instances of trouble on propellers.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0001817
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article describes the characteristics of tubing of heat exchangers with respect to general corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, selective leaching, and oxygen-cell attack, with examples. It illustrates the examination of failed parts of heat exchangers by using sample selection...
Abstract
This article describes the characteristics of tubing of heat exchangers with respect to general corrosion, stress-corrosion cracking, selective leaching, and oxygen-cell attack, with examples. It illustrates the examination of failed parts of heat exchangers by using sample selection, visual examination, microscopic examination, chemical analysis, and mechanical tests. The article explains corrosion fatigue of tubing of heat exchangers caused by aggressive environment and cyclic stress. It also discusses the effects of design, welding practices, and elevated temperatures on the failures of heat exchangers.
Book Chapter
Corrosion Failure of Bottom Plates of an Aboveground Storage Tank
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001765
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... (CPP) are very important when a coating is to be used with CP [ 1 ]. Results of cathodic disbonding tests have indicated that, in general, thicker coatings show better results. Furthermore, an increase in the value of CPP from – 850 mV versus Cu/CuSO 4 reference cell resulted in early blistering [ 2...
Abstract
This paper describes the investigation of a corrosion failure of bottom plates on an aboveground tank used for the storage of potable water. The tank was internally inspected for the first time after six years of service. Paint blisters and rust spots were observed on the bottom plates and first to third course shell plates. Sand blasting and repainting of the bottom plates and first course shell plates was to be used as a remedial measure. However, during the sand blasting, holes and deep pitting were observed on the bottom plates. On-site visual inspection, magnetic flux leakage (MFL) inspection, ultrasonic testing (UT), and evaluation of the external cathodic protection (CP) system were used in the failure analysis. The corrosion products were analyzed using energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX). The failure is attributed to the ingress of water and its impoundment under the tank bottom along the periphery inside the ring wall and failure of water side epoxy coating. Various measures to prevent such failures in the future are recommended.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c9001143
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
... for improved blade performance and survival in the harsh environment of a steam turbine (see, for example, References 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ). The results of surveys conducted by EPRI have indicated that a predominant number of turbine blade failures occur in low pressure (LP...
Abstract
The assignment of financial liability for turbine blade failures in steam turbines rests on the ability to determine the damage mechanism or mechanisms responsible for the failure. A discussion is presented outlining various items to look for in a post-turbine blade failure investigation. The discussion centers around the question of how to determine whether the failure was a fatigue induced failure, occurring in accordance with normal life cycle estimates, or whether outside influences could have initiated or hastened the failure.
Book Chapter
Effects of Composition, Processing, and Structure on Properties of Engineering Plastics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006915
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... blowing agents, or the addition of microballoons (hollow glass or plastic microspheres) to the polymer. This gas phase reduces the weight and thermal conductivity of the plastic. While the resulting foams are classified many ways, they can generally be divided into open-cell and closed-cell foams. In open...
Abstract
This article provides practical information and data on property development in engineering plastics. It discusses the effects of composition on submolecular and higher-order structure and the influence of plasticizers, additives, and blowing agents. It examines stress-strain curves corresponding to soft-and-weak, soft-and-tough, hard-and-brittle, and hard-and-tough plastics and temperature-modulus plots representative of polymers with different degrees of crystallinity, cross-linking, and polarity. It explains how viscosity varies with shear rate in polymer melts and how processes align with various regions of the viscosity curve. It discusses the concept of shear sensitivity, the nature of viscoelastic properties, and the electrical, chemical, and optical properties of different plastics. It also reviews plastic processing operations, including extrusion, injection molding, and thermoforming, and addresses related considerations such as melt viscosity and melt strength, crystallization, orientation, die swell, melt fracture, shrinkage, molded-in stress, and polymer degradation.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006788
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
..., and their alloys, are susceptible to damage ( Ref 4 ). Titanium and its alloys appear to be generally resistant ( Ref 5 – 8 ), although modest pitting due to MIC has been demonstrated in the laboratory ( Ref 9 ). Viable microorganisms can be found over a wide range of temperature, pressure, salinity, and pH...
Abstract
This article focuses on the mechanisms of microbiologically influenced corrosion as a basis for discussion on the diagnosis, management, and prevention of biological corrosion failures in piping, tanks, heat exchangers, and cooling towers. It begins with an overview of the scope of microbial activity and the corrosion process. Then, various mechanisms that influence corrosion in microorganisms are discussed. The focus is on the incremental activities needed to assess the role played by microorganisms, if any, in the overall scenario. The article presents a case study that illustrates opportunities to improve operating processes and procedures related to the management of system integrity. Industry experience with corrosion-resistant alloys of steel, copper, and aluminum is reviewed. The article ends with a discussion on monitoring and preventing microbiologically influenced corrosion failures.
Book Chapter
Acidic Pitting in Waterwall Tubing
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001320
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
...) and is designed to operate at a pressure of 10.3 MPa (1500 psi) with a final steam Temperate of 513 °C (955 °F). A coordinated pH-phosphate system is used for water treatment. Well water is the source for the make-up water. Reportedly, all water treatment control limits, including the demineralizer...
Abstract
Severe pitting was found on the internal surfaces of SA-210 Grade C waterwall tubing of a coal-fired boiler at a cogeneration facility. Metallographic examination showed the pits to be elliptical, having an undercut morphology with supersurface extensions,. a type of pitting characteristic of acidic attack. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscope revealed the presence of chlorine in the pit deposits, indicating that the pitting was promoted by underdeposit chloride attack. The presence of copper in deposits on the internal surface of the tubing may have acted as a secondary factor. Acidic conditions may have formed during a low-pH excursion that reportedly occurred several years prior. To prevent future failures, severely damaged tubing must be replaced. Internal deposit buildup must be removed by chemical cleaning to prevent further pitting. Water quality needs continued monitoring and maintenance to ensure that another low-pH excursion does not occur.
Book Chapter
Function and Properties Factors in Plastics Processing Selection
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006935
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... fascias) High flexural and tensile strengths (piping, pressure vessels, storage silos, vehicle and aircraft structures) Light weight (aircraft parts, luggage) The critical requirements can also be related to the surface quality or shape of the component, such as its appearance; feel; ability...
Abstract
Manufacturing process selection is a critical step in plastic product design. The article provides an overview of the functional requirements that a part must fulfil before process selection is attempted. A brief discussion on the effects of individual thermoplastic and thermosetting processes on plastic parts and the material properties is presented. The article presents process effects on molecular orientation. It also illustrates the thinking that goes into the selection of processes for size, shape, and design factors. Finally, the article describes how various processes handle reinforcement.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001491
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... sections of two silica phenolic nozzle liners failed during proof pressure tests. The proof testing was conducted in Marquardt Jet Laboratory Test Cell No. 3 in Van Nuys, CA. in accordance with previously successful procedures. The combustion chamber assembly proof pressure testing is conducted upon...
Abstract
Two silica phenolic nozzle liners cracked during proof testing. The test consisted of pressuring the nozzles to 14.1 MPa (2050 psia) for 5 to 20 s. It was concluded that the failure was due to longitudinal cracking in the convergent exhaust-nozzle insulators, stemming from the use of silica phenolic tape produced from flawed materials that went undetected by the quality control tests, which at the time, assessed tape strength properties in the warp rather than the bias direction. Once the nozzle manufacturer and its suppliers identified the problem, they changed their quality control procedures and resumed production of nozzle liners with more tightly controlled fiber/fabric materials.
Book Chapter
Polymer Processing—An Introduction
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006864
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
..., although for pressure pipe and conduit extrusion the MFI can be as low as 0.04 g/10 min. Notably, materials to be used in profile extrusion have an MFI of ~4 to 5 g/10 min, while materials that will be thermoformed after extrusion typically have an MFI of ~3 to 4 g/10 min. Semicrystalline thermoplastics...
Abstract
This article discusses technologies focused on processing plastic materials or producing direct tools used in plastics processing. The article focuses on extrusion and injection molding, covering applications, materials and their properties, equipment, processing details, part design guidelines, and special processes. It also covers the functions of the extruder, webline handling, mixing and compounding operations, and process troubleshooting. Thermoforming and mold design are covered. Various other technologies for polymer processing covered in this article are blow molding, rotational molding, compression molding, transfer molding, hand lay-up process, casting, and additive manufacturing.
Book Chapter
Corrosion and Remaining Life Assessment
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006823
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... monitoring for continued operation of equipment such as pressurized vessels, piping systems, and storage tanks. Fitness-for-service assessments can be conducted at three levels (1, 2, and 3), with each level requiring increasing amounts of data and inspection of the equipment and level of expertise...
Abstract
This article illustrates the use of the American Petroleum Institute (API) 579-1/ASME FFS-1 fitness-for-service (FFS) code (2020) to assess the serviceability and remaining life of a corroded flare knockout drum from an oil refinery, two fractionator columns affected by corrosion under insulation in an organic sulfur environment, and an equalization tank with localized corrosion in the shell courses in a chemicals facility. In the first two cases, remaining life is assessed by determining the minimum thickness required to operate the corroded equipment. The first is based on a Level 2 FFS assessment, while the second involves a Level 3 assessment. The last case involves several FFS assessments to evaluate localized corrosion in which remaining life was assessed by determining the minimum required thickness using the concept of remaining strength factor for groove-like damage and evaluating crack-like flaws using the failure assessment diagram. Need for caution in predicting remaining life due to corrosion is also covered.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006813
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... pressure tests are useful for detecting discontinuities extending completely through the tube wall, but they are of little use in detecting discontinuities that extend only partly through the wall. In these cases, ultrasonic and eddy-current methods are more useful. These test methods allow the sensitivity...
Abstract
Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer thermal energy between two or more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid, or between a solid particulate and a fluid at different temperatures. This article first addresses the causes of failures in heat exchangers. It then provides a description of heat-transfer surface area, discussing the design of the tubular heat exchanger. Next, the article discusses the processes involved in the examination of failed parts. Finally, it describes the most important types of corrosion, including uniform, galvanic, pitting, stress, and erosion corrosion.
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