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Book Chapter
Stress-Corrosion Cracking of Stainless Steel Superheater Tubing
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001344
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... Stress Corrosion Cracking in the Chemical Process Industries , Materials Technology Institute of the Chemical Process Industries , Columbus, OH , 1985 , p. 41 . Selected References Selected References • French D.N. , Failures of Boilers and Related Equipment , Failure Analysis...
Abstract
Several 304H stainless steel superheater tubes fractured in stressed areas within hours of a severe caustic upset in the boiler feedwater system. Tests performed on a longitudinal weld joint, which connected two adjacent tubes in the tertiary superheater bank, confirmed caustic-induced stress-corrosion cracking, promoted by the presence of residual welding stresses. Improved maintenance of check valves and routine inspection of critical monitoring systems (conductivity alarms, sodium analyzers, etc.) were recommended to help avoid future occurrences of severe boiler feedwater contamination. Additional recommendations were to eliminate these short longitudinal weld joints by using a bracket assembly joint between the tubes, use a post-weld heat treatment to relieve residual welding stress or select a more stress-corrosion cracking resistant alloy for this particular application.
Book Chapter
Hydrogen Embrittlement Failure of Socket Head Cap Screws
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001101
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... plating Chemical processing equipment Chemical processing industry Regenerators Valves Cadmium-coated steel Surface treatment related failures Hydrogen damage and embrittlement Background Several cadmium-plated carbon steel socket head cap screws failed. Applications The cap screws...
Abstract
Several cadmium-plated carbon steel socket head cap screws that were part of a slide valve assembly on a regenerator line in a petrochemical plant failed during initial loading. Metallographic and XDS chemical analysis in conjunction with SEM examination of one failed and one unfailed cap screw indicated that the screws had failed by hydrogen embrittlement. The plating process was the likely source of the hydrogen. It was recommended that the remainder of the cap screws from the same lot as the failed screws be baked at approximately 190 deg C (375 deg F) for 24 h.
Book Chapter
Excessive Wear of Plain Carbon Steel Sprockets in a Chemical Plant Producing Fibers
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001073
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... be improved by through hardening or induction surface hardening of the teeth. Catastrophic wear Chain drives Chemical processing industry Shafts (power) UNS G10200 UNS G10450 1020 1045 (Other, miscellaneous, or unspecified) wear Background Replacement sprockets ( Fig. 1 ) installed...
Abstract
Replacement sprockets installed on chain drive shafts for winding fibers exhibited excessive wear. Metallographic and chemical analyses conducted on the original and replacement sprockets showed that the material of the replacement sprocket was 1020 low-carbon steel, whereas the original (and specified) material was medium-carbon 1045 steel. The low-carbon steel also had lower hardness because of a lower pearlite fraction in the microstructure. It was recommended that replacement sprockets be made of normalized 1045 steel. It was further suggested that wear resistance could be improved by through hardening or induction surface hardening of the teeth.
Book Chapter
Failure of a Reformer Tube Weld by Cracking
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001280
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... by internal carburization. Quality control of welding procedures and filler metal was recommended. Chemical processing equipment Chemical processing industry Chemical reactors Crack propagation Furnaces Heat-resistant steels Tubing Weld defects Welded joints HK-40 UNS J94204 Joining-related...
Abstract
An HK-40 alloy tubing weld in a reformer furnace of a petrochemical plant failed by leaking after a shorter time than that predicted by design specifications. Leaking occurred because of cracks that passed through the thickness of the weldment. Analysis of the cracked tubing indicated that the sulfur and phosphorus contents of the weld metal were higher than specified, the thickness was narrower at the weld, and the mechanical resistance of the weld metal was lower than specified. Cracking initiated at the weld root by coalescence of creep cavities. Propagation and expansion was aided by internal carburization. Quality control of welding procedures and filler metal was recommended.
Book Chapter
Field Replication of Stress-Corrosion Cracking in a Type 316 Stainless Pressure Vessel
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001059
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
..., was recommended to prevent chloride buildup. Painting of the steel surface with an epoxy-phenolic or epoxy-coal tar was also suggested. Chemical processing industry Columns (process) Marine environments 316 UNS S31600 Stress-corrosion cracking Pitting corrosion Background A type 316 stainless...
Abstract
Field metallography and replication were performed on a type 316 stainless steel column in diglycol amine vacuum service to determine the cause of visible OD pitting on the column in several areas above the insulation support rings. The examination revealed transgranular stress-corrosion cracking beneath the pitted areas on the OD. The likely cause of the cracking was chloride stress corrosion, with chlorides deriving from the marine atmosphere and concentrating under the insulation around the support rings. A complete insulation evaluation, including repair or replacement, was recommended to prevent chloride buildup. Painting of the steel surface with an epoxy-phenolic or epoxy-coal tar was also suggested.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 2
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1993
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v02.c9001333
EISBN: 978-1-62708-215-0
... within the tube) and then fractured, which allowed molten salt to flow into the tube. Chemical processing industry Chemical reactors Fused salts, environment Overheating Tubing St 35.8 High-temperature corrosion and oxidation Background A low-carbon steel (St35.8) tube in a chemical...
Abstract
A low-carbon steel (St35.8) tube in a phthalic anhydride reactor system failed. Visual and stereomicroscopic examination of fracture surfaces revealed heavy oxide/deposits on the outer surface of the tube, tube wall thinning in the area of the fracture, and discolorations and oxides/deposits on the inner surface. Cross sections from the fracture surface were metallographically examined, and the deposits were analyzed. It was determined that the tube had thinned from the inner surface because of a localized overheating condition (probably resulting from a runaway chemical reaction within the tube) and then fractured, which allowed molten salt to flow into the tube.
Book Chapter
Stress-Corrosion Cracking of a Monel 400 Tube
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001775
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... of the variety of the equipment materials, the number of handled chemical substances, and the large variation in processes accomplished. The present work deals with failure analysis and determination of the cause of damage of a component used in this highly demanding industry. The component under examination...
Abstract
A bent Ni-Cu Monel 400 alloy tube, which operated as part of a pipeline in a petrochemical distillery, failed by through-thickness cracking. The pipeline was used to carry a stream of gaseous hydrocarbons containing hydrochloric acid (HCl) into a reaction tower. The tower provided a caustic solution (NaOH) to remove HCl from the stream, before the latter was directed to a burner. Metallographic examination showed that the cracks were intergranular and were frequently branched. Although nominal chemical composition of the component was found within the specified range, energy dispersive x-ray analysis (EDXA) indicated significant segregation of sulfur and chlorine along the grain boundaries. Failure was attributed to hypochlorous-acid (HClO)-induced stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). The HClO was formed by the reaction of HCl with atmospheric O 2 that entered the tube during shutdowns and startups. Residual stresses, originating from in situ bend forming of the tube during assembly of the line, provided a driving force for crack growth, and the segregation of sulfur on grain boundaries made the material more susceptible to cracking.
Book Chapter
Corrosion Failures of Industrial Refractories and Technical Ceramics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003551
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article provides a discussion on the structural ceramics used in gas turbine components, the automotive and aerospace industries, or as heat exchangers in various segments of the chemical and power generation industries. It covers the fundamental aspects of chemical corrosion...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on the structural ceramics used in gas turbine components, the automotive and aerospace industries, or as heat exchangers in various segments of the chemical and power generation industries. It covers the fundamental aspects of chemical corrosion and describes the corrosion resistance characteristics of specific classes of refractories and structural ceramics. The article also examines the prevention strategies that minimize corrosion failures of both classes of materials.
Book Chapter
Analysis and Prevention of Environmental- and Corrosion-Related Failures
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006782
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... reactions and are most frequently found in chemical process streams. All the aforementioned reactions are quite similar: they consume electrons. The aforementioned partial reactions can be used to interpret virtually all electrochemical corrosion problems. Consider what happens when iron is immersed...
Abstract
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material by a reaction of that material with its environment. The realization that corrosion control can be profitable has been acknowledged repeatedly by industry, typically following costly business interruptions. This article describes the electrochemical nature of corrosion and provides the typical analysis of environmental- and corrosion-related failures. It presents common methods of testing of laboratory corrosion and discusses the processes involved in the prevention of environmental- and corrosion-related failures of metals and nonmetals.
Book Chapter
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Ring Type Joint of Reactor Pipeline of a Hydrocracker Unit
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001774
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is one of the major contributors to the failures in petrochemical industries that deal with potentially aggressive chemical species. SCC is reported to be the principal mode of failure of plant equipment in oil industries, and accounts for about 25% of the total failures...
Abstract
A ring-type joint in a reactor pipeline for a hydrocracker unit had failed. Cracks were observed on the flange and the associated ring gasket during an inspection following a periodic shutdown of the unit. The components were manufactured from stabilized grades of austenitic stainless steel; the flange from type 321, and the ring gasket from 347. Examination revealed that the failure occurred by transgranular stress-corrosion cracking, initiated by the presence of polythionic acid. Detailed metallurgical investigation was subsequently conducted to identify what may have caused the formation of polythionic acid in the process gas.
Book Chapter
Analysis and Prevention of Corrosion-Related Failures
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003549
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... in chemical process streams. All of the above reactions are quite similar; they consume electrons. The above partial reactions can be used to interpret virtually all electrochemical corrosion problems. Consider what happens when iron is immersed in water or seawater that is exposed to the atmosphere...
Abstract
This article provides an overview of the electrochemical nature of corrosion and analyzes corrosion-related failures. It describes corrosion failure analysis and discusses corrective and preventive approaches to mitigate corrosion-related failures of metals. These include: change in the environment; change in the alloy or heat treatment; change in design; use of galvanic protection; use of inhibitors; use of nonmetallic coatings and liners; application of metallic coatings; use of surface treatments, thermal spray, or other surface modifications; corrosion monitoring; and preventive maintenance.
Book Chapter
Rapid Pitting Failure of Type 304 Stainless Steel Pipework
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001064
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... of a chemical plant at a tropical location developed several hundred leaks soon after startup. Applications Hydrotesting of new pipework and reservoirs in the petroleum industry and in chemical processing plants is conveniently achieved by using water pressure. A pump is used to force water through...
Abstract
Several hundred leaks were reported in the type 304 stainless steel pipelines, vessels, and tanks of a chemical plant at a tropical location within a few weeks after startup. Investigation of the failure involved a site visit, metallographic examination and analysis of the material, analysis of hydrotest waters, and microbiological examination of slime that had formed in certain pipework sections. It was determined that the failure resulted from microbially induced corrosion promoted by the use of poor-quality hydrotest water and uncontrolled hydrotesting practice. Use of appropriate hydrotesting procedures was recommended to prevent similar failures.
Book Chapter
Corrosion Failures in Gas Turbine Hot Components
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001827
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... (cast cobalt-base superalloy) Introduction The gas turbine is a versatile source of shaft or propulsion power in a growing number of applications. It can be used in several modes in critical industries, such as power generation, oil and gas, process plants, aviation, as well as smaller related...
Abstract
Gas turbines and other types of combustion turbomachinery are susceptible to hot corrosion at elevated temperatures. Two such cases resulting in the failure of a gas turbine component were investigated to learn more about the hot corrosion process and the underlying failure mechanisms. Each component was analyzed using optical and scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, mechanical testing, and nondestructive techniques. The results of the investigation provide insights on the influence of temperature, composition, and microstructure and the contributing effects of high-temperature oxidation on the hot corrosion process. Preventative measures are also discussed.
Book Chapter
Environmental Stress Cracking
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006917
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... an ESC chemical substance would be expected to work on a surface, penetrating the surface and causing crazing and cracking over time. The figure is described as a process of six steps, with essentially the last step being a repetition of the first but happening deeper into the plastic. These steps...
Abstract
While there are many fracture mechanisms that can lead to the failure of a plastic component, environmental stress cracking (ESC) is recognized as one of the leading causes of plastic failure. This article focuses on unpacking the basic concepts of ESC to provide the engineer with a better understanding of how to evaluate and prevent it. It then presents factors that affect and contribute to the susceptibility of plastic to ESC: material factors, chemical factors, stress, and environmental factors. The article includes the collection of background information to understand the circumstances surrounding the failure, a fractographic evaluation to assess the cracking, and analytical testing to evaluate the material, design, manufacturing, and environmental factors.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003556
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... , receives the electrons given up by the oxidation process. The driving force for corrosion is the free energy released by the overall chemical reaction resulting from combined cathodic and anodic half-reactions: (Eq 1) Anodic reaction M → M n + + n electrons Cathodic...
Abstract
This article focuses on the mechanisms of microbially induced or influenced corrosion (MIC) of metallic materials as an introduction to the recognition, management, and prevention of microbiological corrosion failures in piping, tanks, heat exchangers, and cooling towers. It discusses the degradation of various protective systems, such as corrosion inhibitors and lubricants. The article describes the failure analysis of steel, iron, copper, aluminum, and their alloys. It also discusses the probes available to monitor conditions relevant to MIC in industrial systems and the sampling and analysis of conditions usually achieved by the installation of removable coupons in the target system. The article also explains the prevention and control strategies of MIC in industrial systems.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006925
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... not. The chemical structure of a polymer is very important because it dictates so many polymer properties. Much of the processing used to create engineering plastics is directed toward optimizing the properties that may be attainable using the basic structure of the polymer. For example, special processing...
Abstract
This introductory article describes the various aspects of chemical structure that are important to an understanding of polymer properties and thus their eventual effect on the end-use performance of engineering plastics. The polymers covered include hydrocarbon polymers, carbon-chain polymers, heterochain polymers, and polymers containing aromatic rings. The article also includes some general information on the classification and naming of polymers and plastics. The most important properties of polymers, namely, thermal, mechanical, chemical, electrical, and optical properties, and the most significant influences of structure on those properties are then discussed. A variety of engineering thermoplastics, including some that are regarded as high-performance thermoplastics, are covered in this article. In addition, a few examples of commodity thermoplastics and biodegradable thermoplastics are presented for comparison. Finally, the properties and applications of six common thermosets are briefly considered.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 January 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0006788
EISBN: 978-1-62708-295-2
... opportunities to improve operating processes and procedures related to the management of system integrity. Industry experience with corrosion-resistant alloys of steel, copper, and aluminum is reviewed. The article ends with a discussion on monitoring and preventing microbiologically influenced corrosion...
Abstract
This article focuses on the mechanisms of microbiologically influenced corrosion as a basis for discussion on the diagnosis, management, and prevention of biological corrosion failures in piping, tanks, heat exchangers, and cooling towers. It begins with an overview of the scope of microbial activity and the corrosion process. Then, various mechanisms that influence corrosion in microorganisms are discussed. The focus is on the incremental activities needed to assess the role played by microorganisms, if any, in the overall scenario. The article presents a case study that illustrates opportunities to improve operating processes and procedures related to the management of system integrity. Industry experience with corrosion-resistant alloys of steel, copper, and aluminum is reviewed. The article ends with a discussion on monitoring and preventing microbiologically influenced corrosion failures.
Book Chapter
Navigating the Plastic Material Selection Process
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006922
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... to the fact that they are generally more familiar. If the material selection process is limited to this type of plastic, a large class of plastic materials with attractive properties—thermosets—will be ignored. Because thermoset materials solidify by a chemical reaction to create a cross-linked molecular...
Abstract
There are many reasons why plastic materials should not be considered for an application. It is the responsibility of the design/materials engineer to recognize when the expected demands are outside of what the plastic can provide during the expected life-time of the product. This article reviews the numerous considerations that are equally important to help ensure that part failure does not occur. It provides a quick review of thermoplastic and thermoset plastics. The article focuses primarily on thermoset materials that at room temperature are below their glass transition temperature. It describes the motivation for material selection and the goal of the material selection process. The use of material datasheets for material selection as well as the processes involved in plastic material selection and post material selection is also covered.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of Two Stainless Steel Based Components Used in an Oil Refinery
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 3
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v03.c9001819
EISBN: 978-1-62708-241-9
... analysis fatigue strength stainless steel (duplex wrought stainless steel) 316 (austenitic wrought stainless steel) UNS S31600 Introduction The petrochemical industry is one of the most dynamic segments of the world economy, and its growth in the last years has led to the development of new...
Abstract
The shafts on two centrifugal pumps failed during use in a petroleum refinery. Light optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to analyze the damaged materials to determine the cause of failure. The results showed that one shaft, made of duplex stainless steel, failed by fatigue fracture, and the other, made of 316 austenitic stainless steel, experienced a similar fracture, which was promoted by the presence of nonmetallic inclusion particles.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001906
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... Abstract Suspension lugs fabricated from AISI 4340 steel used to facilitate loading of bombs onto the underside of military aircraft could not sustain required loads during routine proof load testing. Three failed lugs underwent visual examination, chemical analysis, metallography, hardness...
Abstract
Suspension lugs fabricated from AISI 4340 steel used to facilitate loading of bombs onto the underside of military aircraft could not sustain required loads during routine proof load testing. Three failed lugs underwent visual examination, chemical analysis, metallography, hardness testing, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. It was determined that the failures were due to forging defects. Both forging laps and seams acted as stress concentrators when the lugs were loaded during proof testing.
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