Piping and structural components used in space launch facilities such as NASA's Kennedy Space Center and the Air Force's Cape Canaveral Air Station face extreme operating conditions. Launch effluent and residue from solid rocket boosters react with moisture to form hydrochloric acid that settles on exposed surfaces as they are being subjected to severe mechanical loads imparted during lift-off. Failure analyses were performed on 304 stainless steel tubing that ruptured under such conditions, while carrying various gases, including nitrogen, oxygen, and breathing air. Hydrostatic testing indicated a burst strength of 13,500 psi for the intact sections of tubing. Scanning electron microscopy and metallographic examination revealed that the tubing failed due to corrosion pitting exacerbated by stress-corrosion cracking (SCC). The pitting originated on the outer surface of the tube and ranged from superficial to severe, with some pits extending through 75% of the tube's wall thickness. The SCC emanated from the pits and further reduced the service strength of the component until it could no longer sustain the operating pressure and final catastrophic fracture occurred. Corrosion-resistant coatings added after the investigation have proven effective in preventing subsequent such failures.

A jack cylinder split open during simulated service testing. The intended internal test pressurization was reportedly analogous to typical service. The material and mechanical properties of the cylinder pipe were unknown, although subsequent testing showed that the pipe satisfied the requirements for a grade 1045 medium-carbon, plain carbon steel. Investigation (visual inspection, chemical analysis, 2% nital etched 119x images, and tension testing) supported the conclusion that the cylinder pipe burst in a mixed brittle-ductile manner due to overpressurization. It is likely that the bearing strength of the pipe was slightly compromised by a low-strength layer of decarburization. Recommendations included evaluating the testing procedure for the possibility of inadvertent overpressurization and analyzing successfully tested cylinders to identify changes in material, and perhaps heat treatment, that may have contributed to this failure.

Forged austenitic steel rings used on rotor shafts in two 100,000 kW generators burst from overstressing in a region of ventilation holes. A variety of causes contributed to the brittle fractures in the ductile austenitic alloy, including stress concentration by holes, work hardened metal in the bores, and a variable pattern of residual stress.

Flow forming technology has emerged as a promising, economical metal forming technology due to its ability to provide high strength, high precision, thin walled tubes with excellent surface finish. This paper presents experimental observations of defects developed during flow forming of high strength SAE 4130 steel tubes. The major defects observed are fish scaling, premature burst, diametral growth, microcracks, and macrocracks. This paper analyzes the defects and arrives at the causative factors contributing to the various failure modes.

The brine-heater shell in a seawater-conversion plant failed by bursting along a welded joint connecting the hot well (C70600 per ASTM B 466) to the heater shell (ASTM A285, grade C steel). Three cracks in the welded joints between the heater shell and the hot well were revealed by visual inspection. It was observed that crack 1 and 2 were covered with high-temperature oxidation products which revealed that the surfaces had been separated for quite some time. A very high discontinuity stress which existed at the longitudinal welds between the hot well and the heater shell was revealed by stress analysis. It was interpreted that the cracks had originated shortly after the heater was put into operation and propagated slowly initially. The rate of propagation was interpreted to have increased due to discontinuity stresses greater than yield strength of the material. It was concluded that the brine heater cracked and fractured because it was overstressed in normal operation. The heater design was modified to make the heater shell and the hot well two separate units. A relief valve was recommended in the heater or in the steam line near the heater.

This article describes three design-life methods or philosophies of fatigue, namely, infinite-life, finite-life, and damage tolerant. It outlines the three stages in the process of fatigue fracture: the initial fatigue damage leading to crack initiation, progressive cyclic growth of crack, and the sudden fracture of the remaining cross section. The article discusses the effects of loading and stress distribution on fatigue cracks, and reviews the fatigue behavior of materials when subjected to different loading conditions such as bending and loading. The article examines the effects of load frequency and temperature, material condition, and manufacturing practices on fatigue strength. It provides information on subsurface discontinuities, including gas porosity, inclusions, and internal bursts as well as on corrosion fatigue testing to measure rates of fatigue-crack propagation in different environments. The article concludes with a discussion on rolling-contact fatigue, macropitting, micropitting, and subcase fatigue.

A welded natural gas line of 400 mm OD and 9 mm wall thickness made of unalloyed steel with 0.22C had to be removed from service after four months because of a pipe burst. Metallographic examination showed the pipe section located next to the gas entrance was permeated by cracks or blisters almost over its entire perimeter in agreement with the ultrasonic test results. Only the weld seam and a strip on each side of it were crack-free. Based on this investigation, the pipeline was taken out of service and reconstructed. To avoid such failures in the future, two preventative measures may be considered. One is to desulfurize the gas. Based on tests, however, the desulfurization would have to be carried very far to be successful. The second possibility is to dry the gas to such an extent as to prevent condensate, and this corrosion, from forming no matter how low winter temperatures may drop. This measure was ultimately recommended, deemed more effective and cheaper.

A 127 cu m (4,480 cu ft) pressurized railroad tank car burst catastrophically. The railroad tank was approximately 18 m (59 ft) long (from 2:1 elliptical heads), 3 m (10 ft) in OD, and 16 mm (0.63 in.) thick. The chemical and material properties of the tank were to comply with AAR M-128 Grade B. As a result of the explosive failure of the tank car, fragments were ejected from the central region of the car between the support trucks from ground zero to a maximum of approximately 195 m (640 ft). The mode of failure was a brittle fracture originating at a preexisting lamination and crack in the tank wall adjacent to the tank nozzle. The mechanism of failure was overpressurization of the railroad tank car caused by a chemical reaction of the butadiene contents. The interrelationship of the mode, mechanism, and consequences of failure is reviewed to reconstruct the sequence of events that led up to the breach of the railroad tank car. Means to prevent similar reoccurrences are discussed.

An eddy current survey of the copper evaporator (chiller) tubes in an absorption air-conditioning unit revealed two tubes in the evaporator bundle with indications typical of longitudinal cracks. Significant necking down and grain distortion at the fracture surfaces was revealed by metallographic examination. The fracture features were found to be characteristic of an overload failure in a ductile material. The ruptured tubes were concluded as a result of examination to have failed as a result of excessive internal pressure. The source of the excessive internal pressure was assumed to be a freeze-up of the tube side water that occurred during interruption of the tube side flow or misoperation of the unit.

During the preproduction stages of forging, an initial batch of 50 mm (2 in.) diam Al-4Cu alloy (L77) extruded bar stock material was found to be cracking randomly. Failure analysis was conducted to determine the metallurgical factors underlying the phenomenon. Microexamination of sections across the defects revealed intergranular cracks tracing a path of round, segregated particles and oxide film discontinuities. The segregated particles were rich in copper It was concluded that the cracking was the result of segregations occurring in poor-quality raw material. The source of segregation was suspected to be the use of improperly made master alloys. Use of improved melting techniques and proper master alloys was recommended.

Banding wires of the rotor of an 1800 hp motor were renewed following replacement of the banding rings. After about six months of service, a breakdown occurred due to bursting of the banding wires in several places. The 0.064 in. diam wire was nonmagnetic and of the 18/8 Cr-Ni type of austenitic stainless steel. The fractures were short and partially crystalline, with no evidence of slowly developing cracks of the fatigue type. Microscopical examination of sections taken through the fractures showed the cracking to be of the multiple branching type. Because the material was in the heavily cold-worked condition, it was not possible to determine with certainty if the cracks were of the inter- or trans-granular type. It was concluded that failure was due to stress-corrosion cracking in a chloride environment. Failure of the wires was likely due to the use of a chloride-containing flux during the soldering operation.

Numerous flaws were detected in a steam turbine rotor during a scheduled inspection and maintenance outage. A fracture-mechanics-based analysis of the flaws showed that the rotor could not be safely returned to service. Material, samples from the bore were analyzed to evaluate the actual mechanical properties and to determine the metallurgical cause of the observed indications. Samples were examined in a scanning electron microscope and subjected to chemical analysis and several mechanical property tests, including tensile, Charpy V-notch impact, and fracture toughness. The material was found to be a typical Cr-Mo-V steel, and it met the property requirements. No evidence of temper embrittlement was found. The analyses showed that the observed flaws were present in the original forging and attributed them to lack of ingot consolidation. A series of actions, including overboring of the rotor to remove indications close to the surface and revision of starting procedures, were implemented to extend the remaining life of the rotor and ensure its fitness for continued service.

Severe pitting corrosion of a carbon steel tube was observed in the air preheater of a power plant, which runs on rice straw firing. Approximately 1450 tubes were removed from Stage 3 of the preheater (air inlet and flue gas outlet) due to corrosion and local bursting. Samples from Stage 2 (where corrosion was low) and Stage 3 (severe corrosion) were taken and subjected to visual inspection, SEM, x-ray diffraction, microhardness measurement, and chemical and microstructural analysis. It was determined that extended non-operation of the plant resulted in the settlement of corrosive species on the tubes in Stage 3. The complete failure of the tube occurred due to diffusion of these elements into the base metal and precipitation of potassium and chlorine compounds along the grain boundaries, with subsequent dislodging of grains. The nonmetallic inclusions acted as nucleating sites for local pitting bursting. Nonuniform heat transfer in Stage 3 operation accelerated the selective corrosion of front-end tubes. The relatively high heat transfer in this stage resulted in condensation of some corrosive gases and consequent corrosion. Continuous operation of the plant with some precautions during assembly of the tubes reduced the corrosion problem.

Decarburization of steel may occur as skin decarburization by gases either wet or containing oxygen, and as a deep ongoing destruction of the material by hydrogen under high pressure. Guidelines are given for recognizing decarburization and determining at what point cracks occurred. How decarburization changes workpiece properties and the case of hydrogen decarburization are addressed through examples.

The primary purpose of this article is to describe general root causes of failure that are associated with wrought metals and metalworking. This includes a brief review of the discontinuities or imperfections that may be common sources of failure-inducing defects in the bulk working of wrought products. The article addresses the types of flaws or defects that can be introduced during the steel forging process itself, including defects originating in the ingot-casting process. Defects found in nonferrous forgings—titanium, aluminum, and copper and copper alloys—also are covered.

This article describes the general root causes of failure associated with wrought metals and metalworking. This includes a brief review of the discontinuities or imperfections that may be the common sources of failure-inducing defects in bulk working of wrought products. The article discusses the types of imperfections that can be traced to the original ingot product. These include chemical segregation; ingot pipe, porosity, and centerline shrinkage; high hydrogen content; nonmetallic inclusions; unmelted electrodes and shelf; and cracks, laminations, seams, pits, blisters, and scabs. The article provides a discussion on the imperfections found in steel forgings. The problems encountered in sheet metal forming are also discussed. The article concludes with information on the causes of failure in cold formed parts.

A sleeve-shaped fire shield that operates inside one of two burner trains in an oil and gas processing unit ruptured after 15 y of service. A detailed analysis was conducted to determine how and why the sleeve failed. The investigation included visual inspection, chemical and gas analysis, mechanical property testing, stereomicroscopy, and metallographic examination. The fire sleeves are fabricated from 3-mm thick plate made of Incoloy 800 rolled into 540-mm diam sections welded along the seam. Three such sections are joined together by circumferential welds to form a single 2.8 m sleeve. The findings from the investigation indicated that internal oxidation corrosion, driven by high temperatures, was the primary cause of failure. Prolonged exposure to temperatures up to 760 °C resulted in sensitization of the material, making it vulnerable to grain boundary attack. This led to significant deterioration of the grain boundaries, causing extensive grain loss (grain dropping) and the subsequent thinning of sleeve walls. Prior to failure, some portions of the sleeve were only 1.6 mm thick, nearly half their original thickness.

A shrunk-fit 18 Mn-5Cr steel retaining ring failed without warning during normal unit operation of a 380 MW electrical generator. The cause of the ring failure was determined to be intergranular stress-corrosion cracking (IGSCC) because of the high strength of the ring material and the presence of moist hydrogen used to cool the ring. Factors which promoted the failure were higher than normal strength levels in the ring material, lower than normal ring operating temperatures, possible moisture in the lubrication oil system, periodic poor performance of the hydrogen dryers, and a ring design which allowed water to become trapped in a relief groove. These factors caused pitting in the ring in an estimated 100 hours of operation. The ring had been inspected previously 18 months prior to the failure and no defects or pitting were found. Calculations showed that a 0.127-cm (0.050-in.) deep pit could grow to a critical size in 3000 to 4000 hours of operation. To prevent further failures, it was recommended that the ring be replaced with an 18 Mn-18Cr alloy with superior resistance to IGSCC. A program of periodic inspection and replacement of other retaining rings in the system was also recommended.

This article addresses the effects of damage to equipment and structures due to explosions (blast), fire, and heat as well as the methodologies that are used by investigating teams to assess the damage and remaining life of the equipment. It discusses the steps involved in preliminary data collection and preparation. Before discussing the identification, evaluation, and use of explosion damage indicators, the article describes some of the more common events that are considered in incident investigations. The range of scenarios that can occur during explosions and the characteristics of each are also covered. In addition, the article primarily discusses level 1 and level 2 of fire and heat damage assessment and provides information on level 3 assessment.

Aluminum alloy BS.1476-HE.15 by virtue of its high strength and low density finds application in the form of bars or sections for cranes, bridges, and other such structures where a reduction in dead weight load and inertia stresses is advantageous. Bars and sections in H.15 alloy are mostly produced by extrusion. Some material processed this way has been prone to exfoliation corrosion. Extended aging for 24 h at a temperature of 185 deg C (365 deg F) virtually suppresses the tendency for exfoliation corrosion to develop. Also, the use of a sprayed coating, either of aluminum or Al-1Zn alloy, was effective in halting and preventing this form of attack. While alarming, the appearance of exfoliation corrosion provides a valuable warning to the engineer or inspector before a severe weakening of the particular sections has occurred.