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Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003516
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article discusses the fundamental variables involved in fatigue-life assessment, which describe the effects and interaction of material behavior, geometry, and stress history on the life of a component. It compares the safe-life approach with the damage-tolerance approach, which...
Abstract
This article discusses the fundamental variables involved in fatigue-life assessment, which describe the effects and interaction of material behavior, geometry, and stress history on the life of a component. It compares the safe-life approach with the damage-tolerance approach, which employs the stress-life method of fatigue life assessment. The article examines the behavior of three different metallic materials used in the design and manufacture of structural components: steel, aluminum, and titanium. It also reviews the effects of retardation and spectrum load on component life. The article concludes with case studies of fatigue life assessment from the aerospace industry.
Book Chapter
Corrosion Failures of Industrial Refractories and Technical Ceramics
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003551
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract This article provides a discussion on the structural ceramics used in gas turbine components, the automotive and aerospace industries, or as heat exchangers in various segments of the chemical and power generation industries. It covers the fundamental aspects of chemical corrosion...
Abstract
This article provides a discussion on the structural ceramics used in gas turbine components, the automotive and aerospace industries, or as heat exchangers in various segments of the chemical and power generation industries. It covers the fundamental aspects of chemical corrosion and describes the corrosion resistance characteristics of specific classes of refractories and structural ceramics. The article also examines the prevention strategies that minimize corrosion failures of both classes of materials.
Book Chapter
Metallurgical Failure Analysis of Titanium Wing Attachment Bolts
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.modes.c9001649
EISBN: 978-1-62708-234-1
... at the time of re-torque and at the time of initial torque application several years earlier. Aerospace fasteners Fractography Ti-6Al-4V UNS R56406 Ductile fracture As in many industries, aerospace systems and components are subject to time-dependent degradation. The ongoing structural...
Abstract
Two titanium alloy wing attachment bolts from a commercial jetliner failed during the course of a routine service operation. Failure of the bolts occurred during the re-torque process as the wing was being reattached. Metallurgical failure analysis indicated that the fracture mechanism was ductile overload and that the mechanical properties of the bolts were consistent with exemplar bolts that had been supplied. After eliminating other sources of excessive load application, the most probable cause of failure was ascribed to variances between the frictional characteristics of the bolt at the time of re-torque and at the time of initial torque application several years earlier.
Book Chapter
Coil Spring Failures in Aerospace Hardware
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.mech.c9001547
EISBN: 978-1-62708-225-9
... for 17-7 PH CH900 and for Custom 455 CH850 stainless steels. Laboratory testing of these two materials in the form of compression springs confirmed the superiority of the 17-7 PH over Custom 455. Aerospace components Coil springs Surface defects 302 UNS S30200 17-7 PH UNS S17700 Custom 455...
Abstract
Life testing of cyclic loaded, miniature extension springs made of 17-7 PH stainless steel wire and AISI 302 Condition B stainless steel wire has shown end hook configuration to be a major source of weakness. To avoid cracking and subsequent fatigue failure, it was found that stress concentration depended on end hook bend sharpness. Also, interference fits are to be avoided in the end hooks of small springs. Additionally, a need for careful consideration of the stress-corrosion properties of candidate materials for spring applications has been demonstrated by stress-corrosion test results for 17-7 PH CH900 and for Custom 455 CH850 stainless steels. Laboratory testing of these two materials in the form of compression springs confirmed the superiority of the 17-7 PH over Custom 455.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001019
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... temperatures, as indicated by melting in the brass components and the extreme distortion in the rollers. Microscopic examination on the crankshaft material showed it to be a good quality steel. On the other hand, the chromium plate was thick, porous, and cracked in many places, including the point of the main...
Abstract
A broken aircraft crankshaft and a severely damaged main brass bearing were examined to determine whether engine failure was initiated in the bearing or in the crankshaft. The steel crankshaft failure was a classical fatigue fracture. The bearing had been subjected to extremely high temperatures, as indicated by melting in the brass components and the extreme distortion in the rollers. Microscopic examination on the crankshaft material showed it to be a good quality steel. On the other hand, the chromium plate was thick, porous, and cracked in many places, including the point of the main fatigue crack. It was concluded that the over-all failure was initiated in the crankshaft, and the failure of the bearing resulted from that failure.
Book Chapter
Probabilistic Damage Tolerance Analysis of Gas Turbine Rotors
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c0090030
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... to address the anomalies, with the objective of enhancing rotor life management practices. The ongoing work involves the use of fracture mechanics and software (called DARWIN.) optimized for damage tolerant design and analysis of metallic structural components. Compressors Damage tolerance analysis...
Abstract
A DC-10 in transit from Denver to Chicago experienced failure of the center engine. The titanium compressor disk burst and severed the hydraulics of the plane. Investigation supports the conclusion that the cause of the disk rupture was the presence of a large fatigue crack near the bore emanating from a hard alpha (HA) defect. Such defects can result from occasional upsets during the vacuum melting of titanium. These nitrogen-rich alpha titanium anomalies are brittle and often have associated microcracks and microvoids. A probabilistic damage tolerance approach was recommended to address the anomalies, with the objective of enhancing rotor life management practices. The ongoing work involves the use of fracture mechanics and software (called DARWIN.) optimized for damage tolerant design and analysis of metallic structural components.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003515
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... (PFA). The article describes the damage tolerance approach to life management of cyclic-limited engine components and lists the commonly used nondestructive evaluation methods. It concludes with an illustration on the role of NDE, as quantified by POD, in fully probabilistic life management...
Abstract
This article provides information on life assessment strategies and conceptually illustrates the interplay of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) and fracture mechanics in the damage tolerant approach. It presents information on probability of detection (POD) and probability of false alarm (PFA). The article describes the damage tolerance approach to life management of cyclic-limited engine components and lists the commonly used nondestructive evaluation methods. It concludes with an illustration on the role of NDE, as quantified by POD, in fully probabilistic life management.
Book Chapter
Failure of a Helicopter Rotor
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c0006444
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... Abstract Helicopter rotor blade components that included the horizontal hinge pin, the associated nut, and the locking washer were examined. Visual examination of the submitted parts revealed that the hinge pin, fabricated from 4340 steel, was broken and that the fracture face showed a flat...
Abstract
Helicopter rotor blade components that included the horizontal hinge pin, the associated nut, and the locking washer were examined. Visual examination of the submitted parts revealed that the hinge pin, fabricated from 4340 steel, was broken and that the fracture face showed a flat beach mark pattern indicative of a preexisting crack. The threaded area of the pin had an embedded thread that did not appear to come from the pin. A chemical analysis was conducted on the embedded thread and on an associated attachment to determine the origin of the thread. Analysis showed that the thread and nut were 4140 steel. Scanning electron fractographic examination of the fracture initiation site strongly suggested that the fracture progressed by fatigue. It was concluded that the failure of the horizontal hinge pin initiated at areas of localized corrosion pits. The pits in turn initiated fatigue cracks, resulting in a failure mode of corrosion fatigue. It was recommended that all of the horizontal hinge pins be inspected. Those pins determined to be satisfactory for further use should be stripped of cadmium, shot peened, and coated with cadmium to a minimum thickness of 0.0127 mm (0.0005 in.).
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001023
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
.... The wear had been caused by incorrect machining of the shaft splines, which prevented the bevel gear nut from locating correctly against the gear. Aerospace engines Aircraft components Bevel gears Drives Engine components Jet planes Military planes Splines 16 NCD 13 Fretting wear...
Abstract
The failure of an ATAR engine accessory angle drive gear assembly caused an engine flame-out in a Mirage III aircraft of the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) during a landing. Stripping of the engine revealed that the bevel gear locating splines (16 NCD 13) had failed. Visual and low-power microscope examination of the spline of the shaft showed evidence of fretting wear debris; similar wear was observed on the splines of the mating bevel gear. It was concluded that the splines had failed by severe fretting wear. Fretting damage was also observed on the shaft face adjacent to the splines and on the bevel gear abutment shoulder. Additional tests included a metrological inspection of the shaft, bevel gear and support ring; metallographic examination of a section from the shaft; chemical analysis of the shaft material (16 NCD 13); and hardness testing of a sample of the yoke material. The wear had been caused by incorrect machining of the shaft splines, which prevented the bevel gear nut from locating correctly against the gear.
Book Chapter
Failure Investigations of PH 13-8 Mo Aircraft Components
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001707
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... Abstract The failures of two aircraft components, one from a landing gear and the other from an ejector rack mechanism, were investigated. Both were made from PH 13-8 Mo (UNS S13800) precipitation-hardening stainless steel which had been heat treated to the H1000 and H950 tempers respectively...
Abstract
The failures of two aircraft components, one from a landing gear and the other from an ejector rack mechanism, were investigated. Both were made from PH 13-8 Mo (UNS S13800) precipitation-hardening stainless steel which had been heat treated to the H1000 and H950 tempers respectively and then chromium plated. The parts were characterized metallographically and mechanically and were found to be compliant. Detailed fractographic examination revealed that the first stage of both failures was similar: subsurface initiation of numerous cracks with a wide range of orientations and cleavage like features. The cracking was followed by fatigue in one case and catastrophic failure in the other. Hydrogen embrittlement was identified as the most likely mechanism of failure.
Book Chapter
Fatigue Fracture of a 4337 Steel Articulated Rod Originating at an Electroetched Numeral
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c0047835
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... electroetched marking of the articulated rods was discontinued as a corrective measure. Aerospace engines Engine components Identification Marking 4337 UNS G43370 Fatigue fracture Surface treatment related failures The articulated rod in an aircraft engine fractured after being in operation...
Abstract
An articulated rod (made from 4337 steel (AMS 6412) forging, quenched and tempered to 36 to 40 HRC) used in an overhauled aircraft engine was fractured after being in operation for 138 h. Visual examination revealed that the rod was broken into two pieces 6.4 cm from the center of the piston-pin-bushing bore. The fracture was nucleated at an electroetched numeral 5 on one of the flange surfaces. A notch, caused by arc erosion during electroetching, was revealed by metallographic examination of a polished-and-etched section through the fracture origin. A remelted zone and a layer of untempered martensite constituted the microstructure of the metal at the origin. Small cracks, caused by the high temperatures developed during electro-etching, were observed in the remelted area. It was concluded that fatigue fracture of the rod was caused by the notch resulting from electroetching and thus electroetched marking of the articulated rods was discontinued as a corrective measure.
Book Chapter
Uncommon Failures in Aluminum Alloys
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001546
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... Abstract A longeron assembly constructed of Alclad 2024, some parts being in the T3 condition, others in the T42 condition, failed at a rivet hole. Plastic deformation at the crack site was found, but no plastic deformation was found in similar failed components. It was concluded...
Abstract
A longeron assembly constructed of Alclad 2024, some parts being in the T3 condition, others in the T42 condition, failed at a rivet hole. Plastic deformation at the crack site was found, but no plastic deformation was found in similar failed components. It was concluded that the numerous hairline cracks in the Alclad layer adjacent to the main fracture were fatigue cracks. In another case, bonded samples of 2024-T3 sheet were fatigue tested at various stress levels. Failures could be separated into three groups: those that failed in the adhesive bond, those that failed in the base material, and those that exhibited a dual failure. The last category failed in the adhesive bond and also showed a type of pitting on one face of the base material. In a third case, a 2024-T4 extrusion section was found to exhibit blistering after chemical milling. The presence of interconnecting microcracks between adjacent discontinuities supported a hydrogen blistering diagnosis.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003503
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... component failure modes and determining their effects on the system operation helps the analyst to develop a deeper understanding of the relationships among the system components and, ultimately, to improve the system design by making changes to either eliminate or mitigate the undesirable effects...
Abstract
This article describes the methodology for performing a failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA). It explains the methodology with the help of a hot water heater and provides a discussion on the role of FMEA in the design process. The article presents the analysis procedures and shows how proper planning, along with functional, interface, and detailed fault analyses, makes FMEA a process that facilitates the design throughout the product development cycle. It also discusses the use of fault equivalence to reduce the amount of labor required by the analysis. The article shows how fault trees are used to unify the analysis of failure modes caused by design errors, manufacturing and maintenance processes, materials, and so on, and to assess the probability of failure mode occurrence. It concludes with information on some of the approaches to automating the FMEA.
Book Chapter
Failure Analysis of Aircraft Landing Gear Components
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.aero.c9001504
EISBN: 978-1-62708-217-4
... Abstract Despite extensive aircraft landing gear design analyses and tests performed by designers and manufacturers, and the large number of trouble-free landings, aircraft users have experienced problems with and failures of landing gear components. Different data banks and over 200 failure...
Abstract
Despite extensive aircraft landing gear design analyses and tests performed by designers and manufacturers, and the large number of trouble-free landings, aircraft users have experienced problems with and failures of landing gear components. Different data banks and over 200 failure analysis reports were surveyed to provide an overview of structural landing gear component failures as experienced by the Canadian Forces over the last 20 years on more than 20 aircraft types, and to assess trends in failure mechanisms and causes. Case histories were selected to illustrate typical problems, troublesome failure mechanisms, the role of high strength aluminum alloys and steels, and situations where fracture mechanics analyses provided insight into the failures. The two main failure mechanisms were: fatigue occurring mainly in steel components, and corrosion related problems with aluminum alloys. Very few overload failures were noted. A number of causes were identified: design deficiencies and manufacturing defects leading mainly to fatigue failures, and poor materials selection and improper maintenance as the principal causes of corrosion-related failures. The survey showed that a proper understanding of the failure mechanisms and causes, by thorough failure analysis, provides valuable feedback information to designers, operators and maintenance personnel for appropriate corrective actions to be taken.
Book Chapter
Fatigue Fracture of Aircraft Engine Compressor Disks
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001081
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
.... , Raizenne M.D. , Wallace W. , and Malherbe M.C. , Practical Experience With Damage Tolerance Based Life Extension of Turbine Engine Components , Proceedings of International Conference of Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD) of NATO , AGARD-CP-393, paper 23, April...
Abstract
Several compressor disks in military fighter and trainer aircraft gas turbine engines cracked prematurely in the bolt hole regions. The disks were made of precipitation-hardened AM355 martensitic stainless steel. Experimental and analytical work was performed on specimens from the fifth-stage compressor disk (judged to be the most crack-prone disk in the compressor) to determine the cause of the failures. Failure was attributed to high-strain low-cycle fatigue during service. It was also determined that the cyclic engine usage assumed in the original life calculations had been under estimated, which led to low-cycle fatigue cracking earlier than expected. Fracture mechanics analysis of the disks was carried out to assess their damage tolerance and to predict safe inspection intervals.
Book Chapter
Failure of a Retainer Spring Because of Cyclic Loading and Torsional Vibration
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.design.c0048169
EISBN: 978-1-62708-233-4
... and produce torsional vibrations. It was concluded that the two inner tabs had broken in fatigue as the result of cyclic loading that compressed and torsionally vibrated the spring. The fillets were replaced with slots to minimize stress concentration at the corners as a corrective measure. Aerospace...
Abstract
A valve-seat retainer spring (made of 0.23 mm thick 17-7 PH stainless steel) from a fuel control on an aircraft engine was found to be broken after 3980 h of service. The two inner tabs were found to be broken off. The part was revealed to be in relative rotation against its contacting member by the radial wear marks on the convex surface. Beach marks indicating that fatigue fracture had been initiated at the convex surface of the washer and had propagated across to the concave surface were revealed by examination of the fractured surfaces of the washer. The cracks were revealed to have originated in the 0.38-mm radius fillet between the tab and the body of the washer. It was interpreted from the analysis of the compound fracture that it was composed of fatigue fractures caused by the formed tab being loaded so as to compress the spring along the axis of its centerline and produce torsional vibrations. It was concluded that the two inner tabs had broken in fatigue as the result of cyclic loading that compressed and torsionally vibrated the spring. The fillets were replaced with slots to minimize stress concentration at the corners as a corrective measure.
Book Chapter
Stress-Corrosion Cracking of a High-Strength Steel Frame in a Fighter Aircraft
Available to PurchaseSeries: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Volume: 1
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 December 1992
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.v01.c9001030
EISBN: 978-1-62708-214-3
... Ideally, stress-corrosion critical components should be designed to operate at stress levels lower than the threshold for SCC, that is: σ SCC = K ISCC β π a where a is the initial flaw size. Although current Navy design philosophy does not consider or permit an initial...
Abstract
Cracks were discovered between interference-fit fasteners (MoS2-coated Ti-6Al-4V) that had been incorporated into a fighter aircraft primary structural frame (D6ac steel) to enhance structural fatigue life. Examination of sections cut from the cracked frame established that the cracks propagated by stress-corrosion cracking. The cause of cracking was twofold: use of interference-fit fasteners exposed to moisture intrusion from a marine environment and poor hole quality. Failure was intensified by dissimilar-metal contact in the presence of weak acidic electrolyte (dissociated MoS2). Control of machining parameters to prevent formation of brittle martensite, use of galvanically compatible fasteners, and use of an alternate lubricant were recommended.
Series: ASM Handbook Archive
Volume: 11
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 January 2002
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11.a0003501
EISBN: 978-1-62708-180-1
... Abstract Materials selection is an important engineering function in both the design and failure analysis of components. This article briefly reviews the general aspects of materials selection as a concern in proactive failure prevention during design and as a possible root cause of failed...
Abstract
Materials selection is an important engineering function in both the design and failure analysis of components. This article briefly reviews the general aspects of materials selection as a concern in proactive failure prevention during design and as a possible root cause of failed parts. It discusses the overall concept of design and describes the role of the materials engineer in the design and materials selection process. The article highlights the significance of materials selection in both the prevention and analysis of failures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006800
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
... materials design materials selection MATERIALS SELECTION is an important engineering function in both the design and failure analysis of components. In design, materials selection can be a complex, iterative process that solves a particular set of engineering objectives for a given component...
Abstract
Materials selection is closely related to the objectives of failure analysis and prevention. This article briefly reviews the general aspects of materials selection as a concern in both proactive failure prevention during design and as a possible root cause of failed parts. Coverage is more conceptual, with general discussions on the following topics: design and failure prevention, materials selection in design, materials selection for failure prevention, and materials selection and failure analysis. Because materials selection is just one part of the design process, the overall concept of design is discussed. The article also describes the role of the materials engineer in the design and materials selection process. It provides information on the significance of materials selection in both the prevention and analysis of failures.
Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11B
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 15 May 2022
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11B.a0006925
EISBN: 978-1-62708-395-9
... articles on the failure analysis of plastics. This approach is meant to cover the overall characterization of plastics from the beginning stages of design to the last stage, when a plastic component reaches the end of its useful life either by unintended interruption of service (i.e., failure...
Abstract
This introductory article describes the various aspects of chemical structure that are important to an understanding of polymer properties and thus their eventual effect on the end-use performance of engineering plastics. The polymers covered include hydrocarbon polymers, carbon-chain polymers, heterochain polymers, and polymers containing aromatic rings. The article also includes some general information on the classification and naming of polymers and plastics. The most important properties of polymers, namely, thermal, mechanical, chemical, electrical, and optical properties, and the most significant influences of structure on those properties are then discussed. A variety of engineering thermoplastics, including some that are regarded as high-performance thermoplastics, are covered in this article. In addition, a few examples of commodity thermoplastics and biodegradable thermoplastics are presented for comparison. Finally, the properties and applications of six common thermosets are briefly considered.
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