Two superheater tubes from a 6.2 MPa (900 psig) boiler failed in service because of creep rupture. One tube was carbon steel and the other was carbon steel welded to ASTM A213 Grade T22 (2.25Cr-1.0Mo) tubing. The failure in the welded tube occurred in the carbon steel section. Portions of the superheater were retubed five years previously with Grade 722 material. The failures indicated that tubes were exposed to long-term overheating conditions. While the carbon steel tube did not experience temperatures above the lower transformation temperature 727 deg C (1340 deg F), the welded tube did experience a temperature peak in excess of 727 deg C (1340 deg F). The long-term overheating conditions could have been the result of excessive heat flux and /or inadequate steam flow. In addition, the entire superheater bank should have been upgraded to Grade 722 material at the time of retubing.

Metallographic studies found that steel used to fabricate the U.S.S. Arizona battleship during original construction, 1913-1915 and reconstruction, 1929-1931 were consistent with the best materials available during each time period. Due to the force of the forward magazine detonation, the best steel available today would not have had any impact on the outcome. Heavy banding in steels from both periods could adversely affect the corrosion resistance under anaerobic conditions that prevail during a corrosion cycle that has developed under hard biofouling layers for over 58 years. Banding would have no effect on corrosion rate under aerobic conditions that may occur in local areas on the hull. In the part of the ship from which samples for this report were obtained, high temperatures above 1340 deg F did not occur. Hull plate samples from the submerged wreckage are not yet available. These samples will be important to confirm findings to this time and determine the remaining thickness of the hull plate and, indirectly, the integrity of the fuel oil tanks.

The center portions of two adjacent low-carbon steel boiler tubes (made to ASME SA-192 specifications) ruptured during a start-up period after seven months in service. It was indicated by reports that there had been sufficient water in the boiler two hours before start-up. The microstructure near the rupture edge was revealed by metallographic examination to consist of ferrite and acicular martensite or bainite. The microstructure and the observed lack of cold work indicated a temperature above the transformation temperature of 727 deg C had been reached. Swelling of the tubes was disclosed by the wall thickness and OD of the tubing. The tubes were concluded to have failed due to rapid overheating.

Several case-hardened and zinc-plated carbon-manganese steel wheel studs fractured in a brittle manner after very limited service life. The fracture surfaces of both front and rear studs showed no sign of fatigue beach marks or deformation in the form of shear lips that would indicate either a fatigue mechanism or ductile overload failure. SEM analysis revealed that the mode of fracture was intergranular decohesion, which indicates an environmental influence in the fracture mechanism. The primary fracture initiated at a thread root and propagated by environmentally-assisted slow crack growth until final fracture. The natural stress concentration at the thread root, when tightened to the required clamp load concomitant with the presence of cracks in the carburized case, was sufficient to exceed the critical stress intensity for hydrogen-assisted stress cracking (HASC). The zinc plating exacerbated the situation by providing a strong local corrosion cell in the form of a sacrificial anode region adjacent to the cracked thread. The enhanced generation of hydrogen in a corrosive environment subsequently lead to HASC of the wheel studs.

This article explains the main types and characteristic causes of failures in boilers and other equipment in stationary and marine power plants that use steam as the working fluid with examples. It focuses on the distinctive features of each type that enable the failure analyst to determine the cause and suggest corrective action. The causes of failures include tube rupture, corrosion or scaling, fatigue, erosion, and stress-corrosion cracking. The article also describes the procedures for conducting a failure analysis.

This article introduces some of the general sources of heat treating problems with particular emphasis on problems caused by the actual heat treating process and the significant thermal and transformation stresses within a heat treated part. It addresses the design and material factors that cause a part to fail during heat treatment. The article discusses the problems associated with heating and furnaces, quenching media, quenching stresses, hardenability, tempering, carburizing, carbonitriding, and nitriding as well as potential stainless steel problems and problems associated with nonferrous heat treatments. The processes involved in cold working of certain ferrous and nonferrous alloys are also covered.

This article provides a background of friction-bearing failures due to overheating. The failures of locomotive axles caused by overheated traction-motor support bearings are discussed. The article also describes liquid-metal embrittlement (LME) in steel. It examines the results of various axle studies, with illustrations and concludes with information on the simulation of the LME mechanism.

This article discusses pressure vessels, piping, and associated pressure-boundary items of the types used in nuclear and conventional power plants, refineries, and chemical-processing plants. It begins by explaining the necessity of conducting a failure analysis, followed by the objectives of a failure analysis. Then, the article discusses the processes involved in failure analysis, including codes and standards. Next, fabrication flaws that can develop into failures of in-service pressure vessels and piping are covered. This is followed by sections discussing in-service mechanical and metallurgical failures, environment-assisted cracking failures, and other damage mechanisms that induce cracking failures. Finally, the article provides information on inspection practices.

This article provides an overview of the effects of various material- and process-related parameters on residual stress, distortion control, cracking, and microstructure/property relationships as they relate to various types of failure. It discusses phase transformations that occur during heat treating and describes the metallurgical sources of stress and distortion during heating and cooling. The article summarizes the effect of materials and the quench-process design on distortion and cracking and details the effect of cooling characteristics on residual stress and distortion. It also provides information on the methods of minimizing distortion and tempering. The article concludes with a discussion on the effect of heat treatment processes on microstructure/property-related failures.