Extra high strength zinc-coated 1080 steel welded wire was wound into seven-wire cable strands for use in aerial cables and guy wires. The wires and cable strands failed tensile, elongation, and wrap tests, with wires fracturing near welds at 2.5 to 3.5% elongation and through the welded joints in wrap tests. The welded wire was annealed by resistance heating. The wire ends had a chisel shape, produced by the use of sidecutters. Tests of the heat treatment temperatures showed that the wire near the weld area exceeded 775 deg C (1425 deg F). Metallographic examination revealed martensite present in the weld area after the heat treatment. The test failures of the AISI 1080 steel wire butt-welded joints were due to martensite produced in cooling from the welding operation that was not tempered adequately in postweld heat treatment, and to poor wire-end preparation for welding that produced poorly formed weld burrs. The postweld heat treatment was standardized on the 760 deg C (1400 deg F) transformation treatment. The chisel shape of the wire ends was abandoned in favor of flat filed ends. The wrap test was improved by adopting a hand-cranked device. Under these conditions, the welded joints withstood the tensile and wrap tests.

Persistent cracking in a forged 1080 steel turntable rail in a wind tunnel test section was investigated. All cracks were oriented transverse to the axis of the rail, and some had propagated through the flange into the web. Through-flange cracks had been repair welded. A section of the flange containing one through-flange crack was examined using various methods. Results indicated that the cracks had initiated from intergranular quench cracks caused by the use of water as the quenching medium. Brittle propagation of the cracks was promoted by high residual stresses acting in conjunction with applied loads. Repair welding was discontinued to prevent the introduction of additional residual stress., Finite-element analysis was used to show that the rail could tolerate existing cracks. Periodic inspection to monitor the degree of cracking was recommended.

A sledge hammer chipped during use. The chip struck a by stander in the eye, leading to its loss. The hammerhead surface was examined visually, nondestructively (magnetic particle method), and stereo microscopically, and a microstructural analysis of a cross section of the head was conducted using optical microscope. Chemical composition of the hammerhead was determined by emission spectrometry. The chemical compositions of the chip and hammer head were compared using energy-dispersive analysis. Microhardness versus distance from the striking face was also determined. The hammerhead material was UNS G10800 (AISI/SAE grade 1080). Excessive hardnesses were measured in the first 3 mm (0. 12 in.) below the striking surface, indicating that there was lack of control during the final tempering operation.

The AISI 1080 steel crankshaft of a large-capacity double-action stamping press broke in service and was repair welded. Shortly after the crankshaft was returned to service, the repair weld fractured. The repair-weld fracture was examined ultrasonically which revealed many internal reflectors, indicating the presence of slag inclusions and porosity. A low-carbon steel flux-cored filler metal was used in repair welding the crankshaft, without any preweld or postweld heating. This resulted in the formation of martensite in the HAZ. The repair weld failed by brittle fracture, which was attributed to the combination of weld porosity, many slag inclusions and the formation of brittle martensite in the HAZ. A new repair weld was made using an E312 stainless steel electrode, which provides a weld deposit that contains considerable ferrite to prevent hot cracking. Before welding, the crankshaft was preheated to a temperature above which martensite would form. After completion, the weld was covered with an asbestos blanket, and heating was continued for 24 h. During the next 24 h, the temperature was slowly lowered. The result was a crack-free weld.

An octagonal steel ingot weighing 13 tons made of manganese-molybdenum steel developed gaping cross-cracks on all eight sides in the forging press during initial pressure application. It was reported that the steel had been melted in a basic 12-ton arc furnace, oxygenated, furnished with 42 kg of 75% ferrosilicon and 12 kg aluminum additions, alloyed with 160 kg of 80% ferromanganese, and finally deoxidized in the ladle with 42 kg calcium silicon. For metallographic examination a plate approximately 100 mm thick was cut parallel to one of the eight planes. Platelet-like particles could be discerned on the conchoidal fracture planes with the SEM. The precipitates proved to be thin and partially transparent platelets of a hexagonal crystal lattice whose parameters resemble those of AIN. The precipitates were at least in part still undissolved in spite of the long holding period at high initial forging temperature. Another block melted under the same conditions and immediately after the defective one, was forged into a gear ring without any trouble. This ring was free of grain boundary precipitates, but it contained only 0.012 % AI and 0.0102 % N.

A failure analysis case study on railroad rails is presented. The work, performed under the sponsorship of the Department of Transportation, addresses the problem of shell and detail fracture formation in standard rails. Fractographic and metallographic results coupled with hardness and residual stress measurements are presented. These results suggest that the shell fractures form on the plane of maximum residual tensile stresses. The formation of the shells is aided by the presence of defects in the material in these planes of maximum residual stress. The detail fracture forms as a perturbation from the shell crack under cyclic loading and is constrained to develop as an embedded flaw in the early stages of growth because the crack is impeded at the gage side and surface of the rail head by compressive longitudinal stresses.

An investigation was conducted to determine why 16 out of 139 pipe bends cracked during hot induction bending. The pipe conformed to API 5L X65 PSL2 line pipe standards and measured 1016 mm (40 in.) in diam with a wall thickness of 18.5 mm. A metallurgical cross section was removed along a crack on the extrados to document the crack morphology using optical microscopy. In addition to cracking, golden-yellow streaks were visible at the extrados, and the composition was examined using scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy. Based on the results, investigators concluded the pipe was contaminated with copper at the mill were it was produced.

When bulging occurred in mortar tubes made of British I steel during elevated-temperature test firing, a test program was formulated to evaluate the high-temperature properties (at 540 to 650 deg C, or 1000 to 1200 deg F) of the British I steel and of several alternative alloys including a maraging steel (18% Ni, grade 250), a vanadium-modified 4337 gun steel (4337V), H19 tool steel, and high-temperature alloys Rene 41, Inconel 718, and Udimet 630. All the alloys evaluated had been used in mortar tubes previously or were known to meet the estimated minimum yield strength. The alloys fall in this order of decreasing strengths: Udimet 630, Inconel 718, Rene 41, H19 tool steel, British I steel, 4337V gun steel, and maraging steel. When cycled between room temperature and 540 to 650 deg C (1000 to 1200 deg F), only Udimet 630, Inconel 718, and Rene 41 retained yield strengths higher than the minimum. Also, these three alloys maintained high strengths over the tested range, whereas the others decreased in yield strength as cycling progressed. Analysis showed Inconel 718 was considered best suited for 81-mm mortar tubes, and widespread industrial use ensured its availability.

Microstructure, corrosion, and fracture morphologies of prestressed steel wires that failed in service on concrete siphons at the Central Arizona Project (CAP) are discussed. The CAP conveys water for municipal, industrial, and agricultural use through a system of canals, tunnels, and siphons from Lake Havasu to just south of Tucson, AZ. Six siphons were made from prestressed concrete pipe units 6.4 m (21 ft) in diam and 7.7 m long, making them the largest circular precast structures ever built. The pipe was manufactured on site and consisted of a 495-mm thick concrete core, wrapped with ASTM A648 steel prestressing wire. All of the CAP failures evaluated were attributed to corrosion. Longitudinal splits reduced the service life of the pipe significantly by facilitating corrosion and introducing sharp cracks into the microstructure of the wire. A few failures were attributed to general corrosion, where the cross section of the wire is reduced until the strength of the wire is exceeded. Most of the failures evaluated were attributed to stress-corrosion cracking.

A felt guide roll fractured in-service on a paper manufacturing machine, damaging the belt as well as multiple dryer rolls, nearby felt guide rolls, and the frame of the machine. The investigation included visual and stereoscopic examination, chemical and microstructural analysis, microhardness and tensile testing, stress calculations, and vibration measurements. Based on the results, the roll fracture was attributed to high-cycle fatigue associated with a plug weld over one of the five threaded fasteners added to secure a balance weight inside the roll. The balance weight was installed to compensate for variations in wall thickness (i.e., weight distribution) of the pipe product used to make the roll. According to the investigation, resonance and vibration, which were initially considered, did not cause the failure.

Rollover accidents in light trucks and cars involving an axle failure frequently raise the question of whether the axle broke causing the rollover or did the axle break as a result of the rollover. Axles in these vehicles are induction hardened medium carbon steel. Bearings ride directly on the axles. This article provides a fractography/fracture mechanic approach to making the determination of when the axle failed. Full scale tests on axle assemblies and suspensions provided data for fracture toughness in the induction hardened outer case on the axle. These tests also demonstrated that roller bearing indentions on the axle journal, cross pin indentation on the end of the axle, and axle bending can be accounted for by spring energy release following axle failure. Pre-existing cracks in the induction hardened axle are small and are often difficult to see without a microscope. The pre-existing crack morphology was intergranular fracture in the axles studied. An estimate of the force required to cause the axle fracture can be made using the measured crack size, fracture toughness determined from these tests, and linear elastic fracture mechanics. The axle can be reliably said to have failed prior to rollover if the estimated force for failure is equal to or less than forces imposed on the axle during events leading to the rollover.

This article briefly reviews the analysis methods for spalling of striking tools with emphasis on field tests conducted by A.H. Burn and on the laboratory tests of H.O. McIntire and G.K. Manning and of J.W. Lodge. It focuses on the metallography and fractography of spalling. The macrostructure and microstructure of spall cavities are described, along with some aspects of the numerous specifications for striking/struck tools. The article also describes the availability of spall-resistant metals and the safety aspects of striking/struck tools in railway applications.

The quantitative characterization of fracture surface geometry, that is, quantitative fractography, can provide useful information regarding the microstructural features and failure mechanisms that govern material fracture. This article is devoted to the fractographic techniques that are based on fracture profilometry. This is followed by a section describing the methods based on scanning electron microscope fractography. The article also addresses procedures for three-dimensional fracture surface reconstruction. In each case, sufficient methodological details, governing equations, and practical examples are provided.

Friction and wear are important when considering the operation and efficiency of components and mechanical systems. Among the different types and mechanisms of wear, adhesive wear is very serious. Adhesion results in a high coefficient of friction as well as in serious damage to the contacting surfaces. In extreme cases, it may lead to complete prevention of sliding; as such, adhesive wear represents one of the fundamental causes of failure for most metal sliding contacts, accounting for approximately 70% of typical component failures. This article discusses the mechanism and failure modes of adhesive wear including scoring, scuffing, seizure, and galling, and describes the processes involved in classic laboratory-type and standardized tests for the evaluation of adhesive wear. It includes information on standardized galling tests, twist compression, slider-on-flat-surface, load-scanning, and scratch tests. After a discussion on gear scuffing, information on the material-dependent adhesive wear and factors preventing adhesive wear is provided.

This article provides an overview of the effects of various material- and process-related parameters on residual stress, distortion control, cracking, and microstructure/property relationships as they relate to various types of failure. It discusses phase transformations that occur during heat treating and describes the metallurgical sources of stress and distortion during heating and cooling. The article summarizes the effect of materials and the quench-process design on distortion and cracking and details the effect of cooling characteristics on residual stress and distortion. It also provides information on the methods of minimizing distortion and tempering. The article concludes with a discussion on the effect of heat treatment processes on microstructure/property-related failures.

Fretting is a wear phenomenon that occurs between two mating surfaces; initially, it is adhesive in nature, and vibration or small-amplitude oscillation is an essential causative factor. Fretting generates wear debris, which oxidizes, leading to a corrosion-like morphology. This article focuses on fretting wear related to debris formation and ejection. It reviews the general characteristics of fretting wear, with an emphasis on steel. The review covers fretting wear in mechanical components, various parameters that affect fretting; quantification of wear induced by fretting; and the experimental results, map approach, measurement, mechanism, and prevention of fretting wear. This review is followed by several examples of failures related to fretting wear.