This investigation characterizes five surgical stainless steel piercings and one niobium piercing that caused adverse reactions during use, culminating with the removal of the jewelry. Chemical composition shows that none of the materials are in accordance with ISO standards for surgical implant materials. Additionally, none of the stainless steel piercings passed the pitting-resistance criterion of ISO 5832-1, which implies that [%Cr + 3.3(%Mo)] > 26. Under microscopic examination, most of the jewelry revealed the intense presence of linear irregularities on the surface. The lack of resistance to pitting corrosion associated with the poor surface finishing of the stainless steel jewelry may induce localized corrosion, promoting the release of cytotoxic metallic ions (such as Cr, Ni, and Mo) in the local tissue, which can promote several types of adverse effects in the human body, including allergic reactions. The adverse reaction to the niobium jewelry could not be directly associated with the liberation of niobium ions or the residual presence of cytotoxic elements such as Co, Ni, Mo, and Cr. The poor surface finish of the niobium jewelry seems to be the only variable of the material that may promote adverse reactions.

An aircraft engine in which an in-flight fire had occurred was dismantled and examined. A bracket assembly fabricated from 2024 aluminum, one of several failed components, was of prime interest because of apparent heat damage. Scanning electron microscopy was used to compare laboratory-induced fractures made at room and elevated temperatures with the bracket failure. The service failure exhibited grain separation and loss of delineation of the grain boundaries due to melting. SEM revealed deep voids between grains and tendrils that connected grains, which resulted from surface tension during melting. Microscopic examination of polished, etched section through the fractured surface verified intergranular separation and breakdown of grain facets. The absence of any reduction of thickness on the bracket assembly at the point of fracture, along with evidence of intense heat at this point, indicated that little stress had been applied to the part. Comparisons of the service failure and laboratory-induced failures in conjunction with macroscopic and metallographic observations showed that the bracket assembly failed because an intense, localized flame had melted the material.

The engine on a jet aircraft was shut down immediately as it produced excessive vibration. Complete failure of the cage in one of the two main-shaft ball bearings (placed side by side in the engine) was revealed in the dismantled engine. The ball bearings (made of vacuum-melted 52100 steel) were both of the single-row deep-groove type with split inner rings and were designed to operate at a maximum temperature of 175 deg C. Overtempering of the rings was indicated by the reduced hardness in comparison to unfailed rings. Severe damage to approximately 20% of the load-bearing surface, with more damage on one of the shoulders of the groove, was revealed during examination of the outer raceway of the bearing which indicated misalignment of the bearing. No damage other than spalling cavities in the inner-ring raceway, caused by the elongated subsurface inclusion revealed by metallographic examination of circumferential section of the largest cavity, was exhibited by the second bearing. It was concluded that the fracture of the cage was caused by overheating and misalignment caused excessive stressing of the bearing on the main shaft.

Statistical techniques provide the design engineer with a powerful tool for the analysis of failure data. By means of an actual case study, steps required to design a test yielding statistically meaningful data and procedures used in graphical analysis of results are presented. The Weibull distribution is the statistical model used as a basis for these techniques. This method of failure analysis provides the engineer with clear, positive design direction.

A polyoxymethylene gear wheel that had been in operation in a boiler room failed. Investigation (visual inspection and 305x images) supported the conclusion that failure was due to postcrystallization causing considerable shrinkage. Breakdown along the crystalline superstructure started mainly at the mechanically stressed tooth flanks. In addition, oil vapors, humidity, and other degradative agents could also have contributed to the observed failure. No recommendations were made.

The fatigue failure of a wire rope used on a skip hoist in an underground mine has been studied as part of the ongoing research by the Bureau of Mines into haulage and materials handling hazards in mines. Macroscopic correlation of individual wire failures with wear patterns, fractography, and microhardness testing were used to gain an understanding of the failure mechanism. Wire failures occurred predominantly at characteristic wear sites between strands. These wear sites are identifiable by a large reduction in diameter; however, reduction in area was not responsible for the location of failure. Fractography revealed multiple crack initiation sites to be located at other less noticeable wear sites or opposite the characteristic wear site. Microhardness testing revealed hardening, and some softening, at wear sites.

Induction-hardened teeth on a sprocket cast of low-alloy steel wore at an unacceptably high rate. A surface hardness of 50 to 51 HRC was determined; 55 HRC minimum had been specified. Analysis revealed that the alloy content of the steel was adequate for the desired hardenability but that the specified carbon content (0.29%) was too low. The low specified carbon content resulted in unacceptably low hardness. Because hardness largely controls wear rate, an early failure occurred. The specification for this part was changed so that a higher carbon content (0.45% C) was required.

A portion of the wall of a reactor vessel used in burning impurities from carbon particles failed by localized melting. The vessel was made of Hastelloy X (Ni-22Cr-9Mo-18Fe). Considering the service environment, melting could have been caused either by excessive carburization (which would have lowered the melting point of the alloy markedly) or by overheating. A small specimen containing melted and unmelted metal was removed from the vessel wall and examined metallographically. It was observed that the interface between the melted zone and the unaffected base metal was composed of large grains and enlarged grain boundaries. An area a short distance away from the melted zone was fine grained and relatively free of massive carbides. This evidence supported the conclusion that the vessel failed by melting that resulted from heating to about 1230 to 1260 deg C (2250 to 2300 deg F), which exceeded normal operating temperatures, and carburization was not the principal cause of failure. No recommendations were made.

Rough operation of the roller bearing mounted in an electric motor/gearbox assembly was observed. The bearing components made of low-alloy steel (4620 or 8620) and the cup, cone and rollers were carburized, hardened and tempered. The contact surfaces of these components (cup, cone and roller) were revealed to be uniformly electrolytically etched by visual examination. The action similar to anodic etching was believed to have occurred as a result of stray currents in the electric motor (not properly grounded) and the presence of an electrolyte (moisture) between the cup and roller surfaces of the bearing. As a remedial action, the bearing was insulated for protection from stray currents by grounding of the motor and the moisture was kept out by sealing both bearings in the assembly.

Incorrect grounding of an electric motor resulted in electric current passing through a 52100 steel ball bearing and caused multiple arcing between the rolling elements. The multiple arcing developed a pattern on the outer race known as ‘fluting’. A section of ball race outer showed the distinct banding (fluting) resulting from spark discharges while the bearing was rotating. The severe distress of the surface resulted in unacceptable levels of vibration. An SEM photograph of the banded regions showed smoothing of the asperities from continued operation is evident. In the craters the residue of partial melting was seen.

A brazing-furnace muffle 34 cm (13 in.) wide, 26 cm (10 in.) high, and 198 cm (78 in.) long, was fabricated from nickel-base high-temperature alloy sheet and installed in a gas-fired furnace used for copper brazing of various assemblies. The operating temperature of the muffle was reported to have been closely controlled at the normal temperature of 1175 deg C (2150 deg F); a hydrogen atmosphere was used during brazing. After about five months of continuous operation, four or five holes developed on the floor of the muffle, and the muffle was removed from service. Analysis (visual inspection, x-ray spectrometry, and metallographic examination) supported the conclusion that the muffle failed by localized overheating in some areas to temperatures exceeding 1260 deg C (2300 deg F). The copper found near the holes had dripped to the floor from assemblies during brazing. The copper diffused into the nickel-base alloy and formed a grain-boundary phase that was molten at the operating temperature. The presence of this phase caused localized liquefaction and weakened the alloy sufficiently to allow formation of the holes. No recommendations were made.

A 3.8-cm diam 6 x 37 rope of improved plow steel wire failed in service during dumping of a ladle of hot slag. A heavy blue oxide extending 0.6 to 0.9 m back from each side of the break was revealed on examination of the rope. Tensile fractures were shown by the broken ends of the rope. Recrystallization of the steel was revealed during microscopic examination of the wires adjacent to the break which indicated that the wires had been heated in excess of 700 deg C (1292 deg F). The tensile strength of the wires in the rope that broke was 896 MPa whereas the specification required it to be 1724 MPa. Thus, a 50% loss in tensile strength of the wires was caused by overheating which lead to failure of the rope. It was recommended that prolonged exposure of wire ropes to extreme conditions should be avoided.

A helicopter rapidly lost altitude and struck a tree, causing a fire and severe damage. The hose clamp which was the subject of this investigation was one of two used on a short length of hose between the turbocharger and the carburetion system. The purpose of this examination was to determine whether the hose failed during or before the accident. Fracture in the failed clamp was accompanied by obvious permanent deformation and evidence of local shearing at the ends of the perforation where fracture occurred, and in the adjacent perforation. The first test involved tightening the clamps to failure with a torque wrench. In no case did the band material fracture. In a second attempt to duplicate the failure, a tensile testing machine was used to pull the two fittings apart while the hose was clamped in place. When the testing machine was operated at maximum head travel (approximately 20 in. per min.), one of the hose clamps broke in the same manner as the clamp in question. The manner of failure during the tension test indicated this clamp failed at the time of the crash because of a sudden separation between the turbocharger and the remainder of the aircraft.

A laminated-paper microwave food tray collapsed with hot food in it. Microscopic examination of the failed tray revealed no structural or material defects. Five additional trays of like construction were also tested to determine the conditions necessary to simulate the permanent deflection of the tray handles that had occurred in the failed tray. Full distortion of the handles was obtained experimentally only by dropping a full hot tray on its end onto the floor. The test results indicated that the tray had slipped from the hand of the user.

A steam turbine developed excessive noise and vibration during routine operation. It was found that the nut that locked the turbine disk In place had worked its way out from the threads and the disk had come of the shaft. Examination of the locking mechanism indicated that its design was responsible for the loosening of the nut. It was recommended that the locking mechanism be redesigned and changed in all existing turbines.

This paper deals with disk drive failures that occur in the interface area between the head and disk. The failures often lead to the loss of stored data and are characterized by circumferential microscratches that are usually visible to the unaided eye. The recording media in disk drives consists of a metal, glass, ceramic, or plastic substrate coated with a magnetic material. Data errors are classified as ‘soft’ or ‘hard’ depending on their correctability. Examination has shown that hard errors are the result of an abrasive wear process that begins with contact between head and disk asperities. The contact generates debris that, as it accumulates, increases contact pressure between the read-write head and the surface of the disk. Under sufficient pressure, the magnetic coating material begins wearing away, resulting in data loss.

Ball bearings made of type 440C stainless steel hardened to 60 HRC and suspected as the source of intermittent noise in an office machine were examined. A number of spots on the inner-ring raceway were revealed by scanning electron microscopy. The metal in the area around the spot was evidenced to have been melted and welded to the inner-ring raceway. It was revealed by randomly spaced welded areas on the raceways that the welding was the result of short electrical discharges between the bearing raceways and the balls. The use of an electrically nonconductive lubricant in the bearings was suspected to have caused the electric discharge by accumulation and discharge of static charge. The electrical resistance between the rotor and the motor frame lubricated with electrically conductive grease and the grease used in the current case was measured and compared to confirm the fact the currently used grease was nonconductive. It was concluded that the pits were formed by momentary welding between the ball and ring surfaces. The lubricant was replaced by electrically conductive grease as a corrective measure.

A portion of the roof of a single story building collapsed during a thunder storm. A failure analysis was conducted to determine whether this structural failure was due to improper design, substandard construction materials, faulty erection, or extreme weather conditions. The failure analysis consisted of an onsite inspection, macrofractographic examination of the fractures where the girders were welded to the columns, macrofractographic examination of the fractured trusses, metallographic examination of the girder and truss materials, chemical analysis of the low-carbon steel girder and truss materials, and mechanical testing of the truss material. It was concluded that substandard structural components in combination with faulty construction was responsible for this service failure.

Evidence of destructive pitting on the gear teeth (AMS 6263 steel) in the area of the pitchline was exhibited by an idler gear for the generator drive of an aircraft engine following test-stand engine testing. The case hardness was investigated to be lower than specified and it was suggested that it had resulted from surface defects. A decarburized surface layer and subsurface oxidation in the vicinity of pitting were revealed by metallographic examination of the 2% nital etched gear tooth sample. It was concluded that pitting had resulted as a combination of both the defects. The causes for the defects were reported based on previous investigation of heat treatment facilities. Oxide layer was caused by inadequate purging of air before carburization while decarburization was attributed to defects in the copper plating applied to the gear for its protection during austenitizing in an exothermic atmosphere. It was recommended that steps be taken during heat treatment to ensure neither of the two occurred.

On 21 April 1995, the contents of a large blender (6 cu m) reacted and caused an explosion that killed and injured a number of workers at a plant in Lodi, NJ. A mixture of sodium hydrosulfite and aluminum powder was being mixed at the time of the accident. This report focuses on evaluations of the blender to determine if material or mechanical failures were the cause of the accident. The results indicate that the mixing vessel was metallurgically sound and did not contribute to the initiation of the failure. However, the vessel was not designed for mixing chemicals that must be isolated from water and excessive heat. Water leaking into the vessel through a graphite seal may have initiated the reactions that caused the accident.