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Steelmaking
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Series: ASM Handbook
Volume: 11A
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 30 August 2021
DOI: 10.31399/asm.hb.v11A.a0006835
EISBN: 978-1-62708-329-4
Abstract
The primary purpose of this article is to describe general root causes of failure that are associated with wrought metals and metalworking. This includes a brief review of the discontinuities or imperfections that may be common sources of failure-inducing defects in the bulk working of wrought products. The article addresses the types of flaws or defects that can be introduced during the steel forging process itself, including defects originating in the ingot-casting process. Defects found in nonferrous forgings—titanium, aluminum, and copper and copper alloys—also are covered.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.chem.c0048835
EISBN: 978-1-62708-220-4
Abstract
Welds in two CMo steel catalytic gas-oil desulfurizer reactors cracked under hydrogen pressure-temperature conditions that would not have been predicted by the June 1977 revision of the Nelson Curve for that material. Evidence of severe cracking was found in five weld-joint areas during examination of a naphtha desulfurizer by ultrasonic shear wave techniques. Defect indications were found in longitudinal and circumferential seam welds of the ASTM A204, grade A, steel sheet. The vessel was found to have a type 405 stainless steel liner for corrosion protection that was spot welded to the base metal and all vessel welds were found to be overlaid with type 309 stainless steel. Long longitudinal cracks in the weld metal, as well as transverse cracks were exposed after the weld overlay was ground off. A decarburized region on either side of the crack was revealed by metallurgical examination of a cross section of a longitudinal crack. It was concluded that the damage was caused by a form of hydrogen attack. Installation of a used Cr-Mo steel vessel with a type 347 stainless steel weld overlay was suggested as a corrective action.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.chem.c9001172
EISBN: 978-1-62708-220-4
Abstract
Unalloyed steels and the pure nickel steels frequently used in the past can sustain significant damage from hydrogen attack in ammoniacal environments. The attack causes decarburization that leads to a loosening of the structure due to the precipitation of methane along grain boundaries. It occurs between 200 and 300 deg C, depending on hydrogen pressure. Parts of an apparatus that operate in these types of environments must be checked constantly if they are not made from hydrogen-resistant steel. The results of two such examinations serve to illustrate the challenges.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.auto.c9001256
EISBN: 978-1-62708-218-1
Abstract
There was a large incidence of surface defects on the crank pins and journals and other areas of crank shafts of a high power automotive engine. The steel used was a Cr-Mo type of nitriding steel. Metallographic observations conclusively proved that the defective areas were entrapment of foreign bodies, resulting from steel making/deoxidizing/teeming stages. The occasionally globular nature of the foreign particles suggested these were formed at the liquid condition of the steel. The ratio of Mn-Si as seen on electron probe microanalysis also suggested the globules high in Mn content might have resulted in deoxidizing stage. Particularly the absence of Fe in some areas in the inclusion was indicative of precipitation deoxidation by ferromanganese/ferrosilicon. The defects apparently did not have time to coalesce and rise up to the top.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.power.c0048309
EISBN: 978-1-62708-229-7
Abstract
A 75 mm OD x 7.4 mm wall thickness carbon steel boiler tube ruptured. A substantial degree of corrosion on the water-side surface leaving a rough area in the immediate vicinity of the rupture was revealed by visual examination. Decarburization and extensive discontinuous intergranular cracking was revealed by microscopic examination of a cross section through the tube wall at the fracture. It was concluded that the rupture occurred because of hydrogen damage involving the formation of methane by the reaction of dissolved hydrogen with carbon in the steel. Hydrogen was produced by the chemical reaction that corroded the internal tube surface. Steel embrittled by hydrogen can be restored only if grain boundary cracking or decarburization had not occurred but since the material embrittled in this manner, its replacement was recommended.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001416
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
Abstract
Hydraulic cylinders on three identical presses failed in a similar manner after approximately ten years' service life. The cylinder was a steel casting having a carbon content of the order of 0.3 to 0.4%. During machining of the internal surfaces, a sharp corner had been left at the junction of the head with the shell. From this stress raiser a fatigue crack had developed around the entire circumference of the cylinder to give a smooth crack of annular form. The use of a flat end to the cylinder, therefore, resulted in excessive stresses being introduced at the junction of the end with the cylinder.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001241
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
Abstract
Decarburization of steel may occur as skin decarburization by gases either wet or containing oxygen, and as a deep ongoing destruction of the material by hydrogen under high pressure. Guidelines are given for recognizing decarburization and determining at what point cracks occurred. How decarburization changes workpiece properties and the case of hydrogen decarburization are addressed through examples.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.bldgs.c9001261
EISBN: 978-1-62708-219-8
Abstract
A ceiling in a concrete structure was hung on flat bars with a cross section of 30 x 80 mm. The bars were borne by a slit steel plate and supported by tabs that were welded onto the flat sides. One of the bars fractured during mounting when it was dropped from a height of about 1 m onto the opposite support. The fracture was a grainy forced rupture that propagated from one of the fillet welds. Investigation showed a steel was selected for this important construction that was prone to aging and that in fact had aged through cold deformation during straightening and then was welded yet. The bar could withstand mounting and subsequent static loading as long as it was treated with care, as could be expected from the good deformation characteristics of the static tensile test. The question is, however, whether occasional impacts or shocks can be assuredly avoided. This risk could have been eliminated if a killed steel of quality groups 2 or 3 according to DIN 17 100 had been used.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.usage.c0090988
EISBN: 978-1-62708-236-5
Abstract
A jack cylinder split open during simulated service testing. The intended internal test pressurization was reportedly analogous to typical service. The material and mechanical properties of the cylinder pipe were unknown, although subsequent testing showed that the pipe satisfied the requirements for a grade 1045 medium-carbon, plain carbon steel. Investigation (visual inspection, chemical analysis, 2% nital etched 119x images, and tension testing) supported the conclusion that the cylinder pipe burst in a mixed brittle-ductile manner due to overpressurization. It is likely that the bearing strength of the pipe was slightly compromised by a low-strength layer of decarburization. Recommendations included evaluating the testing procedure for the possibility of inadvertent overpressurization and analyzing successfully tested cylinders to identify changes in material, and perhaps heat treatment, that may have contributed to this failure.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c0047428
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
Abstract
A cast dragline bucket tooth failed by fracturing after a short time in service. The tooth was made of medium-carbon low-alloy steel heat treated to a hardness of 555 HRB. The fracture surface was covered with chevron marks. These converged at several sites on the surface of the tooth. A hardfacing deposit was located at each of these sites. Visual inspection of the hardfacing deposits revealed numerous transverse cracks, characteristic of many types of hardfacing. This failure was caused by cracks present in hardfacing deposits that had been applied to the ultrahigh-strength steel tooth. Given the small critical crack sizes characteristic of ultrahigh-strength materials, it is generally unwise to weld them. It is particularly inadvisable to hardface ultrahigh-strength steel parts with hard, brittle, crack-prone materials when high service stresses will be encountered. The operators of the dragline bucket were warned against further hardfacing of these teeth.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001184
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
Abstract
Examples of metallic inclusions in steels of various types are presented. The structure of an inclusion in an annealed Fe-1C-1.5Cr steel consisted of ferrite with lamellar pearlite. The carbon content of the inclusion was therefore considerably lower than that of the chromium steel and was adapted to the latter by diffusion only at the periphery of the inclusion. In another section of a hardened piece of the same chromium steel, the steel in this case had a structure of martensite with hypereutectic carbide, while the inclusions consisted of a very fine laminated eutectoid of the lower pearlite range (Troostite). In a pipe of 18-8 austenitic stainless steel a weakly magnetizable spot of limited size was found. This inclusion too was probably more alloy-deficient than the austenitic steel, similar to the ones described above. All three cases were casting defects.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001258
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
Abstract
A drawing plant which processed steel wire of designation 105 Cr 2 for ball bearings had losses due to crack formation and wire breakage during drawing. To establish the reason for the breakage, seven fractures were submitted for investigation with contiguous wire segments on both sides of the fracture of 300 mm each. Missing in the lamellar surface structure, with the exception of the remnants of a coarse network, were the pre-eutectically precipitated carbides to be expected in this steel. Surrounding the ferritic region in the surface structure, a ring of lamellar pearlite is seen, which turns into the granular annealed structure towards the core. The described structural phenomena were noted in all of the seven fracture regions. Their intensity always decreased with increasing distance from the fracture. Surface decarburization caused the formation of lamellar pearlite during annealing. This investigation further revealed that the localized decarburization and pearlite formation was present already in the rolled wire in uneven distribution over the entire coil length.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001260
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
Abstract
One percent Cr-Mo low alloy constructional steel is widely used for high tensile applications, e.g., for manufacture of high tensile fasteners, heat treated shafts and axles, for automobile applications such as track pins for high duty tracked vehicles etc. The steel is fairly through hardening and heat treatment does not present any serious difficulty. Care is still required in processing to avoid decarburization. In an application of track pins for tracked vehicles, bars about 22 mm diam were required in heat treated and centerless-ground condition prior to induction hardening of the surface. Indifferent results were obtained in induction hardening; cracks were noticed, and patchy hardness figures were obtained on the final product in several batches. Metallographic examination of transverse sections through the defective areas showed decarburization to varying degrees, i.e., from partial to total decarburization. Observations suggested the defects originated at the stages of ingot making and rolling. This was apparently the reason for complete decarburization of the area with original surface defect which opened up further in the oxidizing atmosphere of the furnace with low melting clinkers from scale and furnace lining filling up the crevice of the original defect.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.process.c9001642
EISBN: 978-1-62708-235-8
Abstract
A plant had manufactured and heat treated their product in house for years. As time went on, the special steel that they had been using became more expensive, and a switch was made to a more common and less highly alloyed material. However, no change in hardness specifications were made, because calculations of ideal critical diameter and analysis of available hardenability data indicated that the original hardness specification could be met. There was, however, less room for process variation. The parts ended up containing temper carbides, developed heavy decarburization, and experienced excessive distortion because they were left in the furnace for extended and varying periods with the temperature “turned down a couple hundred degrees.”
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.petrol.c0065825
EISBN: 978-1-62708-228-0
Abstract
A case of continual product refinement stimulated by product failures was described. Brittle fracture of gas transmission line pipe steels occurred demonstrating a poor combination of materials, environment, manufacturing and installation problems, and loads. Initial efforts were concentrated towards decreasing the Charpy ductile-to-brittle transition temperature to avoid brittle fracture. It was subsequently revealed that the absorbed energy on the upper shelf of the Charpy energy-temperature curve was critical for arresting a moving crack. Both fracture initiation and fracture propagation were needed be controlled. It was concluded that improved steel processing procedures, chiefly hot-working temperature and deformation control, were also required to optimize microstructure and properties.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.design.c0047817
EISBN: 978-1-62708-233-4
Abstract
A pushrod made by inertia welding two rough bored pieces of bar stock installed in a mud pump fractured after two weeks in service. The flange portion was made of 94B17 steel, and the shaft was made of 8620 steel. It was disclosed by visual examination that the fracture occurred in the shaft portion at the intersection of a 1.3 cm thick wall and a tapered surface at the bottom of the hole. The fatigue crack was influenced by one-way bending stresses initiated at the inner surface and progressed around the entire inner circumference. A heavily decarburized layer was detected on the inner surface of the flange portion and sharp corner was found at the intersection of the sidewall and bottom of the hole. It was concluded that the stress raiser due to the abrupt section change was accentuated by decarburized layer. As a corrective measure, the design of the pushrod was changed to a one-piece forging and circulation of atmosphere during heat treatment was permitted through a hole drilled in the flange end of the rod to avoid decarburization.
Book Chapter
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.design.c0065826
EISBN: 978-1-62708-233-4
Abstract
The wires used in a wet precipitator for cleaning the gases coming off a basic oxygen furnace failed. The system consisted of six precipitators, three separate dual units, each composed of four zones. Each zone contained rows of wires (cold drawn AISI 1008 carbon steel) suspended between parallel collector plates. It was determined that the 1008 wires failed because of corrosion fatigue. It was decided to replace all of the wires in the two zones with the highest rates of failure with cold-drawn type 304 austenitic stainless steel wire. These expensive wires, however, failed after a week by transgranular SCC. Annealed type 430 ferritic stainless steel was subsequently suggested to prevent further failures.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.design.c9001259
EISBN: 978-1-62708-233-4
Abstract
A bolt manufacturer observed that products made from certain shipments of steel 41 Cr4 wire were prone to the formation of quench cracks in their rolled threads. The affected wire was tested and found to be highly sensitive to overheating because of the metallurgical method by which it was produced. A stronger decarburization of the case was a contributing factor that could not be prevented by working because the thread was rolled. Hardening tests conducted by the bolt manufacturer showed that quench cracks did not occur in specimens that were turned down before hardening and when notches were machined instead of beaten with a chisel.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.marine.c9001591
EISBN: 978-1-62708-227-3
Abstract
On 14 April 1912, at 11:40 p.m., Greenland Time, the Royal Mail Ship Titanic on its maiden voyage was proceeding westward at 21.5 knots (40 km/h) when the lookouts on the foremast sighted a massive iceberg estimated to have weighed between 150,000 to 300,000 tons at a distance of 500 m ahead. Immediately, the ship’s engines were reversed and the ship was turned to port (left) in an attempt to avoid the iceberg. In about 40 sec, the ship struck the iceberg below the waterline on its starboard (right) side near the bow. The iceberg raked the hull of the ship for 100 m, destroying the integrity of the six forward watertight compartments. Within 2 h 40 min the RMS Titanic sank. Metallurgical examination and chemical analysis of the steel taken from the Titanic revealed important clues that allow an understanding of the severity of the damage inflicted on the hull. Although the steel was probably as good as was available at the time the ship was constructed, it was very inferior when compared with modern steel. The notch toughness showed a very low value (4 J) for the steel at the water temperature (-2 deg C) in the North Atlantic at the time of the accident.
Series: ASM Failure Analysis Case Histories
Publisher: ASM International
Published: 01 June 2019
DOI: 10.31399/asm.fach.steel.c9001201
EISBN: 978-1-62708-232-7
Abstract
The swivel head of a driving spindle of a four-high mill fractured. The fracture originated in a darkly stained spot on the bottom of the cylindrical part and then continued into the cylinder walls in the two directions. The fracture topography was of dendritic structure at the stained spot. This led to the conclusion that a shrinkage cavity was present. Metallographic examination confirmed that the fracture of the swivel head was caused or favored by a cavity.
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